{"content":"This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nPlace in Maharashtra, India\nNavi Mumbai\nCity\nMumbai Metropolitan Region\nNavi Mumbai Skyline\nNavi Mumbai\nNavi Mumbai\nShow map of Maharashtra\nNavi Mumbai\nNavi Mumbai (India)\nShow map of India\nNavi Mumbai\nNavi Mumbai (Mumbai)\nShow map of Mumbai\nCoordinates: 19°01′N 73°01′E / 19.02°N 73.02°E / 19.02; 73.02Coordinates: 19°01′N 73°01′E / 19.02°N 73.02°E / 19.02; 73.02\nCountry\nIndia\nState\nMaharashtra\nDistricts\nIncludes parts of Thane, Raigad districts\nPlanned, Developed and Owned By\nCIDCO\nElevation\n14 m (46 ft)\nPopulation\n• Total\n1,119,488\nLanguage\n• Official\nMarathi\nVehicle registration\nMH-43 (Navi Mumbai's Thane district), MH-46 (Navi Mumbai's Raigad district)\nNavi Mumbai (Marathi pronunciation: [nəʋiː mumbəiː] and earlier known as New Bombay[1][2] in English), is the largest planned city in the world, situated on the west coast of the Indian subcontinent, in the Konkan division of Maharashtra state, on the mainland of western India. The city is divided into two parts, North Navi Mumbai and South Navi Mumbai, for the individual development of Panvel Mega City, which includes the area from Kharghar to Uran, including Taloja and Old Panvel nodes strictly in the city of Navi Mumbai. Navi Mumbai has a population of 1,119,477[3] as per the 2011 provisional census. It has an average city elevation of 14 meters, excluding forest area.\nThe area was proposed in 1971 as a new urban township of Mumbai by the Government of Maharashtra. A new public sector undertaking, CIDCO, was established for this purpose.[4] Navi Mumbai is situated across two districts, Thane Part and Raigad.[5] The city has been ranked 12th among 73 cities surveyed for cleanliness and hygiene by the Union Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) and Quality Council of India (QCI) as a part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.[6]\nNavi Mumbai is home to various educational institutions offering courses in several streams including engineering, medical sciences, interior designing, and hotel management. Various multinational corporations like Siemens, McDonald's, Morningstar, Inc., Baker Hughes, Bureau Veritas, Bizerba, Reliance, Accenture, and Larsen & Toubro have their Head offices/branches across the city, making it an active business hub. Navi Mumbai also has various recreational facilities such as a Golf Course, Central Park and Pandavkada Water Falls in Kharghar, Parsik Hill near CBD Belapur, Wonders Park and Jewel of Navi Mumbai in Nerul and Seawoods, Mini Seashore Juhu Chowpatty in Juhu Nagar (Juhu Gaon), Sagar Vihar in Vashi, Pirwad, Nagav, and Mankeshwar Beaches in Uran, Belapur Fort in CBD Belapur, Karnala Bird Sanctuary near Panvel, and several other public places like gardens and jogging tracks. Navi Mumbai also has many quality restaurants and luxury hotels for accommodation. There are many shopping malls, such as Seawoods Grand Central Mall in Seawoods, Little World Mall, Glomax Mall and Prime Mall in Kharghar, Orion Mall and K-Mall in Panvel, Center One Mall, Inorbit Mall and Raghuleela Mall in Vashi. Navi Mumbai is also a host to many best health care centres and hospitals like MITR Hospital in Sector 05, Kharghar, Fortis Hiranandani Hospital near Juhu Village, Juhu Nagar (Vashi), Apollo Hospital in Belapur and SRL diagnostic centres in Kharghar, Panvel, Kamothe, Kalamboli, Koper Khairane, Juhu Gaon to name a few.\nContents\n1 History\n2 Implementation, development and issues\n3 Administration\n3.1 CIDCO\n3.2 NMMC\n3.3 PMC\n4 Demographics\n5 Transport\n5.1 International Airport\n5.2 Metro Rail\n6 Infrastructure\n7 Services\n8 Commerce\n9 Sports\n10 Education\n11 Colleges\n12 Schools\n13 References\n14 External links\nHistory[edit]\nIndia experienced a phenomenal rate of urban growth during the 25 years following independence and Mumbai always has had its due share in it. The population of Greater Mumbai rose from 2.966 million in 1951 to 4.152 million in 1961 and to 5.970 million in 1971, registering 40.0 and 43.80 percent growths during the first and second decades respectively. The rapid rate of growth of population, made possible by the increasing industrial and commercial importance of the city, resulted in a fast deterioration in the quality of life for the majority of people living in the city. Development inputs could not keep pace with the rapidly growing population, industry, trade and commerce. Besides, there are physical limitations to the growth of a city built on a long and narrow peninsula, which has very few connections with the mainland.\nThe Government of Maharashtra has been alive to the emerging problems of this metropolis. Responsible public opinion was equally vigilant and several constructive suggestions appeared from time to time in the press and elsewhere. All this helped in keeping the problems of Bombay in the forefront of public awareness. In 1958, the Govt. of Bombay appointed a study group under the Chairmanship of Shri S.G. Barve, Secretary to Government, Public Works Department, to consider the problems relating to congestion of traffic, deficiency of open spaces and playfields, shortage of housing and over-concentration of industry in the metropolitan and suburban areas of Bombay, and to recommend specific measures to deal with these.\nThe Barve Group reported in February 1959. One of its major recommendations was that a rail-cum-road bridge is built across the Thane Creek to connect peninsular Mumbai with the mainland. The group felt that the bridge would accelerate development across the Creek, relieve pressure on the city's railways and roadways, and draw away industrial and residential concentrations eastward to the mainland. The Group hoped that the eastward development would be orderly and would take place in a planned manner.\nThe Government of Maharashtra accepted the Barve Group recommendation. Another Committee under the Chairmanship of Prof. D.R. Gadgil, then Director of the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona was formed and asked: “to formulate broad principles of regional planning for the metropolitan regions of Mumbai Panvel and Pune and to make recommendations for the establishment of Metropolitan Authorities for preparation and execution of such plans”.\nThe Gadgil Committee inter-alia made two important recommendations which have influenced the planning for Navi Mumbai. One, a planned decentralisation of industries with severe restrictions on further industrial growth in the Bombay region. Two, development of the mainland area as a multi-nucleated settlement, each settlement smaller in size than 250,000 population. These multi-nucleated settlements are called nodes in the plan, where the entire development is proposed as a series of nodes strung out along the mass transit area. The nodes proposed by us are, however, more closely spaced than the multi-nucleated settlements envisaged by Dr. Gadgil. But the principle remains of individual settlements, self-contained in respect of schools and shopping and other essential services and separated from each other by green spaces.\nThe Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act was passed in 1966 and brought into force in January 1967. The Bombay Metropolitan Region was notified in June 1967 and a Regional Planning Board constituted under the Chairmanship of Shri L.G. Rajwade, I.C.S. The Draft Regional Plan of the Board was finalised in January 1970. It proposed the development of a twin city across the harbour, on the mainland to the east, as a counter-magnet to the office concentration taking place at the southern tip of Bombay. The alternative growth pole was to siphon off the over-concentration of jobs and population which further growth would cause in the city and reallocate these on the mainland. In making this recommendation, the Board was influenced by various factors such as the existing industrial sites in the Than-Belapur area and Taloja, the imminent completion of the Thana Creek Bridge and the proposal of the Bombay Port Trust to establish a new port at Nhava Sheva.\nThe Board recommended that the new metro-centre or Navi Mumbai as it is now called, be developed to accommodate a population of 2.1 million.[7]\nImplementation, development and issues[edit]\nNavi Mumbai traffic at the rush hour.\nLow Income Housing facilities in Navi Mumbai.\nVashi, Navi Mumbai\nSkyline of Nerul, Navi Mumbai\nSeawoods Grand Central Mall, Navi Mumbai\nUtsav Chowk at Kharghar\nThe planning of Navi Mumbai began in 1971 and involved leading architects and urban planner like Charles Correa (Chief Architect), Shirish Patel, Pravina Mehta[8] and R. K. Jha (Chief Planner),[9] The City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) was established on 17 March 1971, under the Indian Companies Act, 1956 for this purpose. The area covered 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the total 720 kilometres (450 mi) of the Konkan coast. Privately owned land consisting of 86 villages covering 15,954 hectares (39,420 acres) within the present limits of Navi Mumbai and further villages measuring an additional 2,870 hectares (7,100 acres) were acquired by the government of Maharashtra.[10] The major part of Navi Mumbai covers the southern part of Thane taluka (from Thane District) and part of Panvel and Uran taluka (from Raigad District).\nCIDCO carved out 19 small nodes with a view towards facilitating comprehensive development. These nodes were named Airoli, Ghansoli, Kopar Khairane, Juhu Nagar, Vashi, Turbhe, Sanpada, Juinagar, Nerul, Darave, Karave Nagar, CBD Belapur, Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel, Kalamboli, Ulwe, Dronagiri and Taloja.\nCIDCO planned and constructed all the railway stations, roads and public spaces in Navi Mumbai and developed nearby areas commercially.\nVashi Bridge across the creek.\nIn 1973, the Vashi bridge was opened to the public for residents of Vashi, CBD Belapur and Nerul. The Sion-Panvel Highway was built to reduce the time taken to travel from Sion to Panvel. Initially, there was not much response to the new city. Major changes took place only after 1990, with the commissioning of a wholesale agricultural produce market at Turbhe and the construction of a commuter railway line from Mankhurd to Vashi in May 1992. These developments caused a sudden growth in economic activities and population in Navi Mumbai.\nThe city was originally planned to create affordable housing for people who could not afford living in Mumbai. It was decided not to let any slum pockets pop up across the city. But it failed. as, according to the 2001 census, a fifth[11][12] to a third[13] of the population of municipalised Navi Mumbai lives in slums [14] and gaothans (urban villages),[10] with thousands of buildings violating planning norms.[15]\nBy the end of the 1990s, the planning authority of Navi Mumbai initiated private participation in the developmental activity of Navi Mumbai. A new railway link between Nerul and Uran was inaugurated on 11 November 2018.[16] Southern Navi Mumbai is being developed rapidly with its class infrastructure and modern nodes of Kharghar, Kamothe, Panvel and Kalamboli. These nodes are experiencing major infrastructural developments due to their proximity to the proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport. Also, the latest development known as 'One Time Planning' with an estimated budget of ₹12,821 crores is underway to transform the municipalised Navi Mumbai on the lines of the Mega Cities of the world.\nAdministration[edit]\nCIDCO[edit]\nWhen Navi Mumbai was created in the 1970s, CIDCO was the only authority that looked after the development and maintenance of the city. CIDCO prepared a developmental plan for Navi Mumbai covering 95 villages all over the city.\nNavi Mumbai streets at night\nFor the first ten years of the project CIDCO acted as the planning and administrative body and as the developer and builder for the project. Taxes on property, land, commercial and water were payable to CIDCO.\nCIDCO planned 14 nodes divided into the North and the South part.[17] The 7 nodes in the North part are Airoli node, Ghansoli node, Kopar Khairane node, Vashi node, Sanpada node, Nerul node and Belapur node. The 7 nodes in the South part are Kharghar node, Kamothe node, Kalamboli, Pushpak node, Panvel node, Ulwe node and Dronagiri node. Also, two municipal bodies have been established, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC) in the North and Panvel Municipal Corporation in the South.Each of the nodes is divided into smaller groups called sectors.\nInitially only Juhu Vashi, Nerul and CBD Belapur were developed by CIDCO with housing, schools and community centre roads. But after the arrival of the harbour railway line extension in the 1990s, there was an increase in population. CIDCO shifted its development plan to nodes like Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel and Kopar Khairane. In its new development plan, CIDCO land was allocated to builders for housing. CIDCO only provided basic infrastructure like roads, water and electricity, these nodes were developed mostly by private builders according to the CIDCO plan.\nThe newly developed nodes of Navi Mumbai on the south side like Kharghar, Kamothe, New Panvel and Kalamboli are maintained by CIDCO. These nodes, which are all beyond CBD Belapur, come under the Raigad district.\nNMMC[edit]\nOn 17 December 1991, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC) was constituted by the state government for maintaining some of the developed nodes of Navi Mumbai.\nLocal self-government started on 1 January 1992. NMMC was handed nine of the 14 nodes of the Navi Mumbai project area for its jurisdiction. However, CIDCO, as a planning authority, has rights on the open plots in these five nodes.\nThe NMMC jurisdiction starts at Digha in the North and ends at Belapur in the South.[18] The NMMC area is planned into nine nodes (zones). The nine nodes are Belapur node, Nerul node, Turbhe node, Vashi node, Kopar Khairane node, Ghansoli node, Airoli node, Digha node and Dahisar node.\nNMMC Main Building\nWith annual budget exceeding Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation, it is rated amongst the richest corporations in Maharashtra.\nThe municipal corporation is headed by a municipal commissioner and an elected mayor. Currently, the Mayor of Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation is Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) member Mr. J.D.Sutar. There are 111 electoral wards in Navi Mumbai.[19] A corporator is elected in each of the wards.\nPMC[edit]\nRecently a resolution has been passed by the general body of the Panvel Municipal Council (PMC), which previously administered the city of Old Panvel spread across an area of 12.11 sq. km. with a population of 1.8 lakh (0.18 mn), lead to upgrade the Municipal Council to a Municipal Corporation.[20][21] But the minimum requirement for the formation of a Municipal Corporation is having a population of at least 300,000 which the Council falls short of. Hence, a decision has been made by the PMC to incorporate the adjacent nodes of Navi Mumbai under CIDCO's jurisdiction and surrounding villages in the proposed Panvel Municipal Corporation. This would add another 593,000 people under its administration.[22] thereby clearing the first hurdle.\nThe decision propounds that instead of merging the administration of newly developed nodes of Navi Mumbai including New Panvel, Kamothe, Kalamboli, Kharghar, parts of Uran and developing nodes of Ulwe and Dronagiri, which are currently overseen by CIDCO, with NMMC, they should be incorporated under the proposed Panvel Municipal Corporation. This opinion is the result of a political agenda. The fact is, of the total 16 nodes of Navi Mumbai 10 are under NMMC and the rest are under CIDCO. NMMC's jurisdiction is limited within the boundaries of the Thane district, which is a foothold of the Nationalist Congress Party, while the remaining nodes are in the Raigad district, where parties like Bharatiya Janata Party, Shiv Sena and Peasants and Workers Party of India are most active. Hence, the local politicians, especially Panvel MLA Prashant Thakur, oppose the merger of all the nodes under one Municipal Corporation citing political conspiracy.[23][24] In Panvel Municipal Corporation BJP is in power and Peasants and Workers Party of India leading the opposition represent by Pritam Mhatre.[25]\nThe proposal is to be tabled before the Maharashtra State government which has appointed an expert committee to study the feasibility of the demand to upgrade the Panvel Municipal Council to a Municipal Corporation.[20]\nBut there is some discontent among the residents of the Kharghar node. The residents and some NGOs from Kharghar have voiced their demand for Kharghar to be inducted under NMMC as it would provide them with better civic amenities and would make Kharghar eligible to be a part of the proposed plan of making Navi Mumbai a Smart City which includes only the area under NMMC's jurisdiction.[26] But, in actual, CIDCO South Navi Mumbai will be MMR's second smart city. The other one being the North Navi Mumbai, which is under NMMC's jurisdiction. State government has asked CIDCO to develop South Navi Mumbai as a smart city as it will be a role model for other states in the country. Smart City project includes, Navi Mumbai International Airport, Mumbai Trans Harbour Link connecting Ulwe with Sewri, a long coastal link from Dronagiri, extension of the Palm Beach Road from Kopar Khairane to Airoli, extension of national highway, local train railway from Panvel to Ulwe and Uran, new metro projects, including CBD Belapur, Taloja, Khandeshwar and Navi Mumbai airport metro project, development of fourth container terminal in JNPT, new greenfield cities, one near Uran, affordable housing schemes for low income groups and Project Affected Peoples (PAPs), new parks, playgrounds, auditoriums, bhavans, noise and air quality index checkers using advanced technologies, modern sewage treatment plants. CIDCO has its own plan of developing the area under its jurisdiction (informally called as Navi Mumbai South) as a smart city. Everything will be completed 2022, except the airport.[27][28]\nDemographics[edit]\nAs per provisional reports of Census India, population of Navi Mumbai in 2011 is 1,119,477; out of which males and females are 611,501 and 507,976 respectively. Although, Navi Mumbai city has population of 1,119,477; its urban / metropolitan population is 18,414,288 of which 9,894,088 are males and 8,520,200 are females. At least 65.5% of population speaks Marathi language in Navi mumbai.\nIn education section, the total number of literate individuals in Navi Mumbai city is 911,542. Out of this number, 519,257 are males while 392,285 are females. Average literacy rate of Navi Mumbai city is 91.57 percent of which male and female literacy was 95.05 and 87.33 percent.\nThe sex ratio of Navi Mumbai city is 831 females per 1000 males. Child sex ratio of girls is 901 per 1000 boys.\nTransport[edit]\nDEMU train at Panvel, Navi Mumbai\nNMMT AC VOLVO\nBelapur Railway Station\nVashi Station Complex at night.\nNavi Mumbai has a robust infrastructure, is well connected to other parts of the state and country and is relatively less polluted compared to Mumbai. The city has a good public transportation system with NMMT, the transport wing of NMMC, serving the bus commuters, the Mumbai suburban railway serving the train commuters and a large fleet of auto rickshaws for intra-nodal commute. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway starts at Kalamboli in Navi Mumbai. The Mumbai Trans Harbour Link (MTHL), also known as the Sewri-Nhava Sheva Trans Harbour Link, is an under construction 22-kilometre (14 mi) long freeway grade road bridge connecting South Mumbai with Navi Mumbai.[29]\nThe Mumbai suburban railway network covers most of the populated region of the city. The most important suburban stations are Vashi, Nerul, Belapur and Panvel. The stations are planned as major railway junctions. Panvel is the only mainline station and also the busiest railway station of Navi Mumbai. All outstation trains halt here for time periods varying from 5 to 20 minutes. It is an important junction, railway lines come and meet here and it is connected to almost all parts of India. A new broad gauge line is functional between Karjat & Panvel.\nBrihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST) buses run from various area of Mumbai to Navi Mumbai & Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport (NMMT) buses run all over Navi Mumbai and various area in Mumbai, Thane, Bhiwandi, Kalyan-Dombivli-Badlapur, Panvel-Khopoli-Taloja, Uran-Ulwe etc. NMMT runs AC Volvo buses from Navi Mumbai to Mumbai, Thane and Kalyan-Dombivli. The Palm Beach Marg, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) long six lane road connects Vashi to CBD Belapur running parallel to the Thane creek.\nNMMT Routes in Navi Mumbai\nNMMT 1 CBD Belapur Bus Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 2 Divanagar (Airoli Sector 10) to Purna Village (Bhiwandi) Via Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 3 Ghansoli Depot to Thane Rly Stn (W) Via Patni\nNMMT 4 Vashi (Sector 07) Bus Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 7 Vashi Rly Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 8 Vashi Rly Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W) Via Ghansoli Village\nNMMT 9 Vashi Rly Stn to Ghansoli Depot\nNMMT 10 Sanpada Rly Stn to Ghansoli Depot Via APMC Market\nNMMT 11 Sanpada Rly Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W) Via MIDC\nNMMT 15 Nerul Sector 46/48 to DY Patil College (Nerul LP)\nNMMT 17 Nerul Rly Stn (E) to Baman Dongri Rly Stn (Ulwe)\nNMMT 18 Ghansoli Depot to Kharkopar Rly Stn (Ulwe)\nNMMT 20 Ghansoli Depot to Nerul Sector 46/48\nNMMT 21 Vashi (Sector 07) Bus Stn to Artist Colony (CBD) Via Nerul (E)\nNMMT 22 Vashi (Sector 07) Bus Stn to Jalvayu Vihar (Kharghar) Via Nerul (W)\nNMMT 23 CBD Belapur Bus Stn to Kharkopar Rly Stn (Ulwe)\nNMMT 24 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 26 Belapur Rly Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 30 Kalamboli (Roadpali) to Uran Via Belapur Rly Stn\nNMMT 31 Kopar Khairane Bus Stn to Uran\nNMMT 34 Jui Nagar Rly Stn (E) to JNPT\nNMMT 41 Vashi Rly Stn to Dombivli Rly Stn (W) Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 42 Vashi Rly Stn to Dombivli Rly Stn (W) Via Kopar Khairane\nNMMT 44 Belapur Rly Stn to Dombivli Rly Stn (W) Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 46 Vashi Rly Stn to Badlapur Fire Brigade Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 47 Belapur Rly Stn to Badlapur Fire Brigade Via Taloja MIDC\nNMMT 50 Kopar Khairane Bus Stn to Panvel Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT 52 Belapur Rly Stn to Taloja Via Kharghar\nNMMT 53 Kharghar Rly Stn to Kharghar Sector 36\nNMMT 54 Kharghar Rly Stn to RAF Colony\nNMMT 55 Ghansoli Depot to Taloja Via Kharghar\nNMMT 56 Mansarovar Rly Stn to Roadpali Via Kalamboli\nNMMT 57 Mansarovar Rly Stn to Panvel Rly Stn (E) Via Khanda Colony\nNMMT 58 Vashi Bus Stn. to Khopoli Via Panvel\nNMMT 60 Vashi Rly Stn to Kalyan Rly Stn (W) Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 61 Belapur Rly Stn to Kalyan Rly Stn (W) Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 62 Vashi Rly Stn to Kalyan Rly Stn (W) Via Kopar Khairane\nNMMT 71 Belapur Rly Stn to Kalyan Rly Stn (W) Via Taloja MIDC\nNMMT 75 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to Sai Nagar (Old Panvel)\nNMMT 76 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to Karanjade Sector 06\nNMMT 77 Panvel Rly Stn (E) to Mahalaxmi Nagar (Nere Village)\nNMMT 81 Vashi Rly Stn to Mumbra Retibunder Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 82 Vashi Rly Stn to Diva Rly Stn (E) Via Turbhe Naka\nNMMT 83 Airoli Bus Stn to Thane Rly Stn (W) Via Patni\nNMMT 84 Kurla Rly Stn (E) to Mumbra Retibunder Via Kopar Khairane\nNMMT 100 Vashi Rly Stn to Lokmanya Nagar (Thane) Via Mulund Gawanpada\nNMMT 103 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to Dadar (Hindmata)\nNMMT 119 Airoli Bus Stn to World Trade Centre Via Eastern Freeway\nNMMT 144 Airoli Bus Stn to Andheri Rly Stn (E)\nNMMT AC 105 CBD Belapur Bus Stn to Bandra Rly Stn (W)\nNMMT AC 106 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to World Trade Centre Via Eastern Freeway\nNMMT AC 108 Nerul Sec 46/48 to World Trade Centre Via Eastern Freeway\nNMMT AC 110 Jalvayu Vihar (Kharghar) to World Trade Centre Via Eastern Freeway\nNMMT AC 111 Panvel Rly Stn (W) to World Trade Centre Via Dadar\nNMMT AC 114 Ghansoli Depot to World Trade Centre Via Eastern Freeway\nNMMT AC 115 Kharkopar Rly Stn (Ulwe) to World Trade Centre Via Dadar\nNMMT AC 125 Jalvayu Vihar (Kharghar) to Borivali Rly Stn (E) Via Eastern Express Highway\nNMMT AC 131 Airoli Bus Stn to Borivali Rly Stn (E) Via Ghodbunder Road\nBEST Routes in Navi Mumbai\nBEST 501 Kurla Rly Stn (E) to Airoli Bus Stn\nBEST 502 Tata Power Stn to Nerul Sector 46/48\nBEST 504 Wadala Depot to Jalvayu Vihar (Kharghar)\nBEST 505 Bandra Depot to CBD Belapur Bus Stn\nBEST 506 Jijamata Udyan (Byculla) to Nerul Bus Stn\nBEST 507 Santacruz Rly Stn (E) to Nerul Bus Stn Via SCLR\nBEST 511 Mulund (W) Check Naka Bus Stn to Nerul Bus Stn Via Ghatkopar\nBEST 512 Mulund (W) Check Naka Bus Stn to Nerul Bus Stn\nBEST 513 Gawanpada Mulund (E) to Vashi Rly Stn\nBEST 517 Santacruz Rly Stn (E) to APMC Market (Vashi)\nBEST 521 Vasantrao Naik Chowk (Tardeo) to Ghansoli Gharonda\nBEST 522 Marol Depot to Vashi Rly Stn\nBEST 523 Dindoshi Depot to Millenium Business Park (Mahape)\nBEST 524 Borivali Rly Stn (E) to APMC Market (Vashi)\nBEST 525 Dindoshi Depot to APMC Market (Vashi)\nBEST 533 Andheri Rly Stn (W) to APMC Market (Vashi)\nBEST 545 Agarkar Chowk Andheri Rly Stn (E) to Airoli Bus Stn\nBEST C-50 World Trade Centre to Vashi Bus Stn Via Eastern Freeway\nBEST C-53 Ghatkopar Depot to Kalamboli Bus Stn\nBEST C-55 Bandra Depot to CBD Belapur Bus Stn Via SCLR\nBEST A-511 Ghatkopar Depot to Vashi Bus Stn\nKDMT Routes in Navi Mumbai\nKDMT 11 Kalyan Rly Stn (W) to Vashi Rly Stn\nKDMT 15 Kalyan Rly Stn (W) to Belapur Rly Stn\nKDMT 20 Kalyan Rly Stn (W) to Panvel Rly Stn (W)\nKDMT 70 Dombivli Rly Stn (E) to Panvel Rly Stn (W)\nKDMT AC 81 Dombivli Rly Stn (W) to Vashi Rly Stn\nKDMT AC 108 Kalyan Rly Stn (W) to Vashi Rly Stn\nTMT Routes in Navi Mumbai\nTMT 141 Diva Rly Stn (E) to Vashi Rly Stn Via Turbhe Naka\nAuto rickshaws provide inter as well as intra nodal public transport across the city. Taxis operating from designated taxi stands provide the means to travel to further destinations. Taxis charge a fixed rate approved by the R.T.O. details of which can be found on popular local transit apps of the city.[30]\nNavi Mumbai has the largest container terminal in India, Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva near Uran.[31] It is well connected by road and rail, and handles approximately 56.13% of India's container traffic.[32][33] The Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, 30 km away, is the nearest airport to the city.\nInternational Airport[edit]\nMain article: Navi Mumbai International Airport\nThe Navi Mumbai International Airport[34] is being constructed in southern Panvel area near Ulwe. It is being built through Public Private Partnership (PPP), with private sector partners having 74% equity and the Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Government of Maharashtra (through CIDCO) each holding 13%.\nThe International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has already given techno-feasibility clearance to the airport. The central government provided cabinet approval for the construction on 31 May 2007. While an opening date of 2020 has been mooted, as of March 2018, construction has yet to start.[35]\nMetro Rail[edit]\nMain article: Navi Mumbai Metro\nThe Navi Mumbai Metro is an under construction rapid transit system in Navi Mumbai. A network of as many as six lines have been planned of which four lines will be constructed by CIDCO in the Navi Mumbai south region, the second and third line of the metro system will be constructed by NMMC and MMRDA respectively. The first line of the metro system is being constructed by CIDCO. This line includes three phases. In the first phase, the line will join the CBD Belapur station on the Mumbai suburban railway and Pendhar village. In the second phase, the line will join Taloja MIDC and Khandeshwar node (which will be extended to the Navi Mumbai International Airport in Ulwe node of the city), and in the third phase, the line will link the Pendhar and Taloja MIDC metro stations. The first phase of the line 1 is slated to become operational by 2020 and CIDCO has claimed to make the network of its four lines fully operational by 2022-2023 along with operationalisation of the city's International Airport in Ulwe node. The cost of the metro project has risen from 4,163 crore for 21.45 km in 2011 to 8,904 crore for 26.26 km in 2018.\nInfrastructure[edit]\nBasic infrastructure worth ₹40 billion (US$560 million) is already in place.[36] The city boasts a reliable supply of electricity from various sources, and excellent motoring conditions, with numerous flyovers, broad roads, and parking lots. The main problem which the residents face is poor connectivity with Mumbai, with only two road links between the two cities and a single rail line. A hovercraft service from Vashi to Colaba and the CBD to Colaba did not succeed due to the high cost of tickets and maintenance. Cidco is planning to relaunch its hovercraft service from Vashi, Belapur, Nerul and Airoli to Gateway of India.\nServices[edit]\nThere are adequate utility services, banks, restaurants, malls, multiplexes and other shops in Navi Mumbai. The City boasts several shopping malls such as Little World Mall, Glomax Mall, Prime mall and Pacific Mall in the most developed node of Navi Mumbai, Kharghar; K-Mall and the Orion mall in Panvel node of the city; Center One, Palm Beach Galleria, Citi Center, Raghuleela Mall and Inorbit Mall in Vashi, alongwith the Seawoods Grand Central Mall in Seawoods. Throughout Navi Mumbai supermarkets and hypermarkets like Big Bazaar, Reliance Smart, Reliance Smart points, Apna Bazaar, More, Spencer's, Reliance Fresh, Spinach, Daily Bazar and Fairprice cater to the shopping needs of the residents. DMart has launched eight hypermarkets in Navi Mumbai.\nLeading banks such as Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, South Indian Bank, State Bank of India, Union Bank, Saraswat Bank, Bank of Baroda, AXIS Bank, Canara Bank, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Central Bank of India, Bank of Maharashtra, State Bank of Hyderabad, Citibank India, ICICI Bank, Jammu & Kashmir Bank and HDFC Bank have their branches and ATMs around Navi Mumbai. The Reserve Bank of India has served the people of Navi Mumbai since 2001.\nCultural centres include the Navi Mumbai Tamil Sangam.\nNavi Mumbai has some three-star and five-star hotels; namely Royal Tulip (five-star hotel in Kharghar), The Hotel Three Star (In Kharghar), The Park (Belapur CBD), Fortune Select Exotica-Member ITC Hotel Group (Vashi), to name a few.\nCommerce[edit]\nVashi station complex\nCricket Stadium in Nerul\nDMC Airoli College\nThe Navi Mumbai Special Economic Zone (SEZ) located in the nodes of Dronagiri and Kalamboli are planned to provide commercial growth and employment to the city. Positioned en route the proposed Navi Mumbai Airport, this megaproject has attracted investments of close to 40,000 crores.[citation needed] Navi Mumbai is a new hub for newly incorporated companies & start ups to establish their base in Mumbai.[37] As per the list of newly incorporated companies in Navi Mumbai around 500 new & startups companies were registered in and around the region every month.\nSports[edit]\nThe DY Patil International Stadium in Nerul\nCricket is the prevalent sport in the city. Navi Mumbai has its own International Cricket Ground in Shiravne (Nerul) called the DY Patil Stadium which hosts IPL T-20 matches, including hosting the 2008 and 2010 IPL finals. It is also the home ground for the Indian Super League football club Mumbai City FC. The Fr. Agnel Stadium in Vashi is the training ground of the team.\nNavi Mumbai has an Olympic-size swimming pool at Nerul. CIDCO has proposed two 18-hole golf course academies at Nerul and Kharghar. There are plans to have sports facilities in the proposed 80 hectare Central Park being developed in Kharghar. The CIDCO has also constructed a 11-hole golf course in Kharghar near Central Park.\nEducation[edit]\nMain article: Schools and Colleges in Navi Mumbai\nProvision of schools and colleges was priority in the planning of Navi Mumbai. The nodes (townships) were designed to provide one primary school per 5,000 populations, one high school for 12,500 populations and one college for 50,000 population.\nEach of the nodes is self-sufficient in terms of providing quality education. Students are given access to various syllabi, including the State Education Board, CBSE, IGCSE, IB and ICSE patterns. Other than this, CIDCO encouraged private institutions as well.\nAbout 22.5% of the total population is considered to be school-going children. Most students attend school and college within their node (township). 76% of the students walk to their school or college, 12% use public transport, 10% use bicycles and only 2% travel by school bus.\nA number of premier schools and colleges have been set up in Navi Mumbai. And not just local students, but students from Mumbai and even outside come to Navi Mumbai in their quest for quality education. As such, Navi Mumbai is quickly acquiring the title of educational hub.[38]\nColleges[edit]\nDY Patil University\nIIM Indore (Mumbai Campus)\nNational Institute of Fashion Technology\nFr. Conceicao Rodrigues Institute of Technology\nCDAC Kharghar.\nIndian Maritime University, Navi Mumbai Campus\nSchools[edit]\nApeejay School, Nerul\nApeejay School, Kharghar\nAvalon Heights International School\nD.A.V Public School, Nerul\nDayanand Anglo Vedic Public School, Airoli\nDelhi Public School, Nerul\nFr. Agnel Multipurpose School and Junior College, Vashi\nGoldcrest High International School\nNew Horizon Scholars School, Airoli\nRyan International Schools, Sanpada, Kharghar, Vashi, Kalamboli\nSacred Heart High School, Vashi\nVIBGYOR Group of Schools, Airoli\nVIBGYOR Group of Schools, Kharghar\nVishwajyot High School, Kharghar\nThis section contains embedded lists that may be poorly defined, unverified or indiscriminate. Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Where appropriate, incorporate items into the main body of the article. (August 2021)\nPresentation Convent School, Nerul\nReliance Foundation School, KoparKhairne\nSt. Lawrence High School, Vashi\nSt Mary's ICSE School, KoparKhairne\nSt.Mary's Multipurpose High School, Vashi\nReferences[edit]\n^ https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZKD4uFIlQIEC&pg=PA81&dq=Greater+Bombay+Metropolitan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj-ysuHsOvyAhVW7HMBHeb1C0Q4ChDoAXoECAYQAw#v=onepage&q=Greater%20Bombay%20Metropolitan&f=false\n^ https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3DYZwpHuqvUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Greater+Bombay+Metropolitan+Area&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Greater%20Bombay%20Metropolitan%20Area&f=false\n^ \"CIDCO :: Population\". Cidco.maharashtra.gov.in. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"Introduction\". CIDCO. Archived from the original on 30 June 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"Navi Mumbai A Cruel Joke\". Mumbai Mirror. 30 December 2015. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2016.\n^ \"Swachh Survekshan -2016 – ranks of 73 cities\". pib.nic.in. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"CIDCO :: Evolution of Navi Mumbai\". Cidco.maharashtra.gov.in. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"Master class with Charles Correa\". Mumbai Mirror. 9 June 2013. Archived from the original on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.\n^ Mehta, H.: Man who built Navi Mumbai is in Gujarat Archived 2 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Times of India, 21 February 2010. Accessed 27 January 2014.\n^ a b Chatterjee, Piu (7 July 2014). \"Urban Villages in Globalized India: Degenerative Growth Processes in Navi Mumbai\". Inclusive. Journal of the Kolkata Centre for Contemporary Studies. ISSN 2278-9758. Archived from the original on 26 October 2015.\n^ \"Slum population-- 2001 Census\" (PDF). Visionmumbai.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2015.\n^ Srivastav, Amit (15 December 2012). \"Slum-hub\". Afternoon Despatch & Courier, Mumbai. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2015.\n^ Vijapurkar, Mahesh (18 June 2015). \"Navi Mumbai was Charles Correa's dream: Here's how it turned into a nightmare\". Firstpost. Archived from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.\n^ \"Slum and Non-Slum Population, Sex ratio and Literacy rate by City/ Towns, in Maharashtra State 2001\". ENVIS Centre on Population and Environment (Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India). Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2015.\n^ Bhosale, Arpika (12 April 2013). \"23,000 illegal two-storey buildings in Navi Mumbai\". Free Press Journal. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2015.\n^ Nov 11, PTI | Updated; 2018; Ist, 18:39. \"uran rail line commissioned: Mumbai: First phase of Nerul-Seawoods-Uran rail line commissioned | Mumbai News - Times of India\". The Times of India. Retrieved 23 January 2020. CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)\n^ \"Development Plan\". CIDCO. 19 December 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2021.\n^ \"Zoning\". NMMC. Retrieved 12 March 2021.\n^ \"Elected Members\". Nmmconline.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ a b U K Nambiar (12 December 2015), Talks begin to give corporation status to PMC, Navi Mumbai: TOI, TNN, archived from the original on 6 August 2016, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ Bhavika Jain (9 December 2015), 2 new civic bodies on cards, Mumbai: TOI, TNN, archived from the original on 10 December 2015, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ Umesh K Parida (20 December 2015), PMC's civic body plan includes 3 more villages, Navi Mumbai: TOI, TNN, archived from the original on 9 August 2017, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ George Mendonca (28 November 2013), Panvel MLA opposes merger of developed nodes with Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation, Navi Mumbai: TOI, TNN, archived from the original on 3 July 2018, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ Rahul M Tawade (29 November 2013), Upgrade Panvel council to corporation level rather merging it with civic body, says Prashant Thakur, Panvel: DNA, DNA, archived from the original on 24 December 2015, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ \"महाआघाडीच्या गटनेतेपदी प्रीतम म्हात्रे\". Maharashtra Times.\n^ Sunnidh Poojary (19 August 2015), Include Kharghar in NMMC jurisdiction, Kharghar: DNA, archived from the original on 22 December 2015, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ \"CIDCO announces Rs 34,000-crore smart city project\", The Hindu, Mumbai, 3 December 2015, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ BS Reporter (5 December 2015), Cidco launches Navi Mumbai smart city project, Mumbai: Business Standard, archived from the original on 22 December 2015, retrieved 20 December 2015\n^ \"Mumbai Trans-Harbour Link May Be Ready Before 2022 Deadline, Says Chief Minister Uddhav Thackeray\". BloombergQuint. Retrieved 15 January 2020.\n^ Kamal, Hassan. \"Good news for the daily commuter\". Mid-day.com. Mid-Day. Archived from the original on 2 August 2015. Retrieved 12 August 2015.\n^ \"India's major ports see 6.7 percent growth in container volumes\". JOC.com. 7 April 2010. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.\n^ \"JNPT's 12-lane freight corridor to ease traffic snarls around Mumbai\". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2017.\n^ \"JNPT\". Jnport.gov.in. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"GMR cites 'execution challenges', may exit Navi Mumbai airport project\". The Hindu. Retrieved 27 February 2017.\n^ \"NAVI MUMBAI AIRPORT MAY NOT BE COMPLETED BY DEADLINE\". Mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\n^ \"Maharashtra IT Parks\". 17 April 2002. Archived from the original on 17 April 2002.\n^ \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 5 June 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2014. CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)\n^ \"CIDCO :: Educational Infrastructure\". Cidco.maharashtra.gov.in. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.\nExternal links[edit]\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Navi Mumbai.\nNavi Mumbai travel guide from Wikivoyage\n\"Places to Visit in Navi Mumbai\", Tripoto, retrieved 2 November 2014\nNavi Mumbai Municipal Corporation Accessed 11 October 2012.\nNavi Mumbai Special Economic Zone\nCIDCO – City and Industrial Development Corporation Accessed 29 June 2013.\n[1] navi Mumbai metro train trial\nArticles Related to Navi Mumbai\nv\nt\ne\nNavi Mumbai\nGeography\nKashid Beach\nMajor roads\nPalm Beach Road\nLondon Pilsner (LP), Nerul\nBusiness districts\nCBD Belapur\nVashi\nNerul\nMahape\nMIDC\nShopping\nRaghuleela Mall\nLarge structures\nDY Patil Stadium\nUtsav Chowk\nNavi Mumbai International Airport\nEducation\nFr. 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{"content":"\"Faulkner\" redirects here. For other uses, see Faulkner (disambiguation) and William Faulkner (disambiguation).\nWilliam Faulkner\nFaulkner in 1954, photographed by Carl Van Vechten\nBorn\nWilliam Cuthbert Falkner\n(1897-09-25)September 25, 1897\nNew Albany, Mississippi, U.S.\nDied\nJuly 6, 1962(1962-07-06) (aged 64)\nByhalia, Mississippi, U.S.\nLanguage\nEnglish\nNationality\nAmerican\nAlma mater\nUniversity of Mississippi\nPeriod\n1919–1962\nNotable works\nThe Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, Light in August, Absalom, Absalom!, \"A Rose for Emily\", \"The Bear\"\nNotable awards\nNobel Prize in Literature (1949)\nPulitzer Prize for Fiction (1955, 1963)\nNational Book Award (1951, 1955)\nSpouse\nEstelle Oldham\n​\n(m. 1929)​\nSignature\nWilliam Cuthbert Faulkner (/ˈfɔːknər/;[1][2] September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was an American writer known for his novels and short stories set in the fictional Yoknapatawpha County, based on Lafayette County, Mississippi, where Faulkner spent most of his life. Faulkner is one of the most celebrated writers of American literature, and is widely considered one of the best writers of Southern literature.\nBorn in northern Mississippi, Faulkner's family moved to Oxford, Mississippi when he was a young child. With the outbreak of World War I, he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force but he did not serve in combat. Returning to Oxford, he attended the University of Mississippi for three semesters before dropping out. He then moved to New Orleans, where he wrote his first novel Soldiers' Pay (1925). Returning to Oxford, he wrote Sartoris (1927), his first work which is set in Yoknapatawpha County. In 1929, he published The Sound and the Fury. The following year, he wrote As I Lay Dying. Seeking greater economic success, he went to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter.\nFaulkner's renown reached its peak upon the publication of Malcolm Cowley's The Portable Faulkner and his 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the only Mississippi-born Nobel laureate. Two of his works, A Fable (1954) and his last novel The Reivers (1962), won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.[3] His economic success allowed him to purchase an estate in Oxford, Rowan Oak. Faulkner died from a heart attack on July 6, 1962 related to a fall from his horse the prior month.\nIn 1998, the Modern Library ranked his 1929 novel The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century; also on the list were As I Lay Dying (1930) and Light in August (1932). Absalom, Absalom! (1936) appears on similar lists.\nContents\n1 Life\n1.1 Childhood and heritage\n1.2 Trip to the North and early writings\n1.3 New Orleans and early novels\n1.4 The Sound and the Fury\n1.5 Light in August and foray into Hollywood\n1.6 Final years and death\n2 Writing\n3 Legacy\n3.1 Awards\n3.2 Collections\n3.3 Critical reception\n4 Selected list of works\n5 Filmography\n6 Notes and references\n6.1 Notes\n6.2 Citations and references\n6.3 Works cited\n7 External links\nLife[edit]\nChildhood and heritage[edit]\nWilliam Cuthbert Faulkner was born on September 25, 1897 in New Albany, Mississippi,[4] the first of four sons of Murry Cuthbert Falkner (August 17, 1870 – August 7, 1932) and Maud Butler (November 27, 1871 – October 16, 1960).[5] His family was upper middle-class, \"not quite of the old feudal cotton aristocracy\".[6] Soon after his first birthday, his family moved to Ripley, Mississippi, where his father worked as the treasurer for the family-owned Gulf & Chicago Railroad Company.[7] Murry hoped to inherit the railroad from his father, John Wesley Thompson Falkner, but John had little confidence in Murry's ability to run a business and sold it. Following the sale of the railroad business, Murry proposed a plan to get a new start for his family by moving to Texas to become a rancher. Maud disagreed with this proposition,[8] and they moved instead to Oxford, Mississippi in 1902,[9] where Murry's father owned several businesses, making it easy for Murry to find work.[10] Thus, four days prior to William's fifth birthday, the Falkner family settled in Oxford, where he lived on and off for the rest of his life.[5][11] After 15 years in Oxford, Faulkner's father became the business manager of the University of Mississippi.[12]\nHis family, particularly his mother Maud, his maternal grandmother Lelia Butler, and Caroline \"Callie\" Barr (the African American nanny who raised him from infancy) influenced the development of Falkner's artistic imagination. Both his mother and his grandmother were avid readers as well as painters and photographers, educating him in visual language. While Murry enjoyed the outdoors and encouraged his sons to hunt, track, and fish, Maud valued education and took pleasure in reading and going to church. She taught her sons to read before she sent them to public school and she also exposed them to literary classics such as the works of Charles Dickens and the Grimms' Fairy Tales.[10]\nFaulkner was influenced by stories of his great-grandfather and namesake William Clark Falkner.\nFalkner spent his boyhood listening to stories which were told to him by his elders including stories which were about the Civil War, slavery, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Falkner family. Falkner's grandfather also told him about the exploits of William's great-grandfather and namesake, William Clark Falkner, who was a successful businessman, writer, and Confederate hero. Telling stories about \"Old Colonel\", as his family called him, had already become something of a family pastime when Faulkner was a boy.[10] According to one of Falkner's biographers, by the time William was born, his great-grandfather had \"long since been enshrined as a household deity.\"[13]\nThe younger Faulkner was greatly influenced by the history of his family and the region in which he lived. Mississippi marked his sense of humor, his sense of the tragic position of \"black and white\" Americans, his characterization of Southern characters, and his timeless themes, including fiercely intelligent people who are dwelling behind the façades of good ol' boys and simpletons.[citation needed]\nAs a schoolchild, Faulkner had success early on. He excelled in the first grade, skipped the second, and did well through the third and fourth grades. However, beginning somewhere in the fourth and fifth grades of his schooling, Falkner became a much quieter and more withdrawn child. He occasionally played hooky and became somewhat indifferent with regard to his schoolwork, instead, he took an interest in studying the history of Mississippi on his own time, beginning in the seventh grade. The decline of his performance in school continued, and Falkner wound up repeating the eleventh and twelfth grades, never graduating from high school.[10]\nAs a teenager in Oxford, Faulkner dated Estelle Oldham (1897–1972), the popular daughter of Major Lemuel and Lida Oldham, and he also believed that he would marry her.[14] However, Estelle dated other boys during their romance, and in 1918 one of them, Cornell Franklin, proposed marriage to her before Faulkner did. Estelle's parents insisted that she marry Cornell, because he was an Ole Miss law graduate, because he had recently been commissioned as a major in the Hawaiian Territorial Forces, and because he also came from a respectable family of whom they were old friends.[15] Estelle's marriage to Franklin fell apart ten years later, and they divorced in April 1929.[16]\nTrip to the North and early writings[edit]\nCadet Faulkner in Toronto, 1918\nWhen he was 17, Faulkner met Phil Stone, who became an important early influence on his writing. Stone was four years his senior and came from one of Oxford's older families; he was passionate about literature and had bachelor's degrees from Yale and the University of Mississippi. Stone read and was impressed by some of Faulkner's early poetry, becoming one of the first to recognize and encourage Faulkner's talent. Stone mentored the young Faulkner, introducing him to the works of writers such as James Joyce, who influenced Faulkner's own writing. In his early 20s, Faulkner gave poems and short stories he had written to Stone in hopes of their being published. Stone sent these to publishers, but they were uniformly rejected.[17] In spring 1918, Faulkner traveled to live with Stone at Yale, his first trip north.[18]\nAlthough he initially planned to join the British Army in hopes of being commissioned as an officer,[19] Faulkner joined the Canadian RAF with a forged letter of reference and left Yale to receive training in Toronto.[20] Accounts of Faulkner being rejected from the United States Army Air Service due to his short stature, despite wide publication, are false.[21] Despite his claims, records indicate that Faulkner was never actually a member of the British Royal Flying Corps and never saw active service during the First World War.[22] Despite claiming so in his letters, Faulkner did not receive cockpit training or even fly.[23] Faulkner returned to Oxford in December 1918, where he told acquaintances false war-stories and even faked a war wound.[24]\nIn 1918, Faulkner's surname changed from \"Falkner\" to \"Faulkner\". According to one story, a careless typesetter made an error. When the misprint appeared on the title page of his first book, Faulkner was asked whether he wanted the change. He supposedly replied, \"Either way suits me.\"[25]\nIn adolescence, Faulkner began writing poetry almost exclusively. He did not write his first novel until 1925. His literary influences are deep and wide. He once stated that he modeled his early writing on the Romantic era in late 18th- and early 19th-century England.[5] He attended the University of Mississippi (\"Ole Miss\") in Oxford, enrolling in 1919, going three semesters before dropping out in November 1920.[26] Faulkner joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and pursued his dream to become a writer.[citation needed]\nWilliam was able to attend classes at the university because his father had a job there as a business manager. He skipped classes often and received a \"D\" grade in English. However, some of his poems were published in campus publications.[17][27]\nIn 1922, his poem \"Portrait\" was published in the New Orleans literary magazine Double Dealer. The magazine published his \"New Orleans\" short story collection three years later.[28]\nNew Orleans and early novels[edit]\nDuring part of his time in New Orleans, Faulkner lived in a house in the French Quarter (pictured center yellow).\nFaulkner spent the first half of 1925 in New Orleans, Louisiana, where many bohemian artists and writers lived, specifically in the French Quarter where Faulkner lived beginning in March.[29] During his time in New Orleans, Faulkner's focus drifted from poetry to prose and his literary style made a marked transition from Victorian to modernist.[30] The Times-Picayune published several of his short works of prose.[31] After being directly influenced by Sherwood Anderson, he made his first attempt at fiction writing. Anderson assisted in the publication of Soldiers' Pay and Mosquitoes, Faulkner's second novel, set in New Orleans, by recommending them to his publisher.[32] The miniature house at 624 Pirate's Alley, just around the corner from St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans, is now the site of Faulkner House Books, where it also serves as the headquarters of the Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society.[33]\nAlso in New Orleans, Faulkner wrote his first novel, Soldiers' Pay.[5] A Soldier's Pay and his other early works were written in a style similar to contemporaries Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, at times nearly exactly appropriating phrases.[34]\nDuring the summer of 1927, Faulkner wrote his first novel set in his fictional Yoknapatawpha County, titled Flags in the Dust. This novel drew heavily from the traditions and history of the South, in which Faulkner had been engrossed in his youth. He was extremely proud of the novel upon its completion and he believed it a significant step up from his previous two novels—however, when submitted for publication to Boni & Liveright, it was rejected. Faulkner was devastated by this rejection but he eventually allowed his literary agent, Ben Wasson, to significantly edit the text, and the novel was published in 1929 as Sartoris.[27][32][note 1] The work was notable in that it was his first novel that dealt with the Civil War rather than the contemporary emphasis on World War I and its legacy.[35]\nThe Sound and the Fury[edit]\nThe Sound and the Fury (1929)\nIn autumn 1928, just after his 31st birthday, Faulkner began working on The Sound and the Fury. He started by writing three short stories about a group of children with the last name Compson, but soon began to feel that the characters he had created might be better suited for a full-length novel. Perhaps as a result of disappointment in the initial rejection of Flags in the Dust, Faulkner had now become indifferent to his publishers and wrote this novel in a much more experimental style. In describing the writing process for this work, Faulkner would later say, \"One day I seemed to shut the door between me and all publisher's addresses and book lists. I said to myself, 'Now I can write.'\"[36] After its completion, Faulkner insisted that Ben Wasson not do any editing or add any punctuation for clarity.[27]\nIn 1929, Faulkner married Estelle Oldham, with Andrew Kuhn serving as best man at the wedding. Estelle brought with her two children from her previous marriage to Cornell Franklin and Faulkner hoped to support his new family as a writer. Faulkner and Estelle later had a daughter, Jill, in 1933. He began writing As I Lay Dying in 1929 while working night shifts at the University of Mississippi Power House. The novel would be published in 1930.[37]\nBeginning in 1930, Faulkner sent some of his short stories to various national magazines. Several of these were published and brought him enough income to buy a house in Oxford for his family, which he named Rowan Oak.[38] He made money on his 1931 novel, Sanctuary, which was widely reviewed and read (but widely disliked for its perceived criticism of the South).[citation needed] With the onset of the Great Depression, Faulkner was not satisfied with his economic situation. With limited royalties from his work, he published short stories in magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post to supplement his income.[39]\nLight in August and foray into Hollywood[edit]\nLight in August (1932)\nBy 1932, Faulkner was in need of money. He asked Wasson to sell the serialization rights for his newly completed novel, Light in August, to a magazine for $5,000, but none accepted the offer. Then MGM Studios offered Faulkner work as a screenwriter in Hollywood. Faulkner was not an avid movie goer and had reservations about working in the movie industry. As André Bleikasten comments, he “was in dire need of money and had no idea how to get it…So he went to Hollywood.”[40] It has been noted that authors like Faulkner were not always hired for their writing prowess but \"to enhance the prestige of the …writers who hired them.\"[40] He arrived in Culver City, California, in May 1932. The job would begin a sporadic relationship with moviemaking and with California, which was difficult but he endured in order to earn \"a consistent salary that would support his family back home.\"[41]\nHis first screenplay was for Today We Live, an adaptation of his short story \"Turnabout\" which received a mixed response. He then wrote a screen adaptation of Sartoris that was never produced.[39] From 1932 to 1954, Faulkner worked on around 50 films.[42]\nAs Stefan Solomon observes, Faulkner was highly critical of what he found in Hollywood, and he wrote letters that were “scathing in tone, painting a miserable portrait of a literary artist imprisoned in a cultural Babylon.”[43] Many scholars have brought attention to the dilemma he experienced and that the predicament had caused him serious unhappiness.[44][41][45] In Hollywood he worked with director Howard Hawks, with whom he quickly developed a friendship, as they both enjoyed drinking and hunting. Howard Hawks' brother, William Hawks, became Faulkner's Hollywood agent. Faulkner would continue to find reliable work as a screenwriter from the 1930s to the 1950s.[32][38]\nFaulkner had an extramarital affair with Hawks' secretary and script girl, Meta Carpenter,[46] later known as Meta Wilde.[47] The affair was chronicled in her book A Loving Gentleman.[47]\nIn 1942, Faulkner tried to join the United States Air Force but was rejected. He instead worked on local Civil Defense.[48]\nFinal years and death[edit]\nFaulkner in 1954\nWhen Faulkner visited Stockholm in December 1950 to receive the Nobel Prize, he met Else Jonsson (1912–1996), who was the widow of journalist Thorsten Jonsson (1910–1950). Jonsson was a reporter for Dagens Nyheter from 1943 to 1946, who had interviewed Faulkner in 1946 and introduced his works to Swedish readers. Faulkner and Else had an affair that lasted until the end of 1953. At the banquet where they met in 1950, publisher Tor Bonnier introduced Else as the widow of the man responsible for Faulkner winning the Nobel prize.[49]\nFaulkner's Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech on the immortality of the artists, although brief, contained a number of allusions and references to other literary works.[50]\nFaulkner served as the first Writer-in-Residence at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville from February to June 1957 and again in 1958.[51][52]\nOn June 17, 1962, Faulkner suffered a serious injury in a fall from his horse, which led to thrombosis. He suffered a fatal heart attack on July 6, 1962, at the age of 64, at Wright's Sanatorium in Byhalia, Mississippi.[5][11] Faulkner is buried with his family in St. Peter's Cemetery in Oxford, alongside the grave of an unidentified family friend, whose stone is marked only with the initials \"E.T.\"[53]\nWriting[edit]\nFrom the early 1920s to the outbreak of World War II, Faulkner published 13 novels and many short stories. This body of work formed the basis of his reputation and earned him the Nobel Prize at age 52. Faulkner's prodigious output include celebrated novels such as The Sound and the Fury (1929), As I Lay Dying (1930), Light in August (1932), and Absalom, Absalom! (1936). He was also a prolific writer of short stories.\nFaulkner's first short story collection, These 13 (1931), includes many of his most acclaimed (and most frequently anthologized) stories, including \"A Rose for Emily\", \"Red Leaves\", \"That Evening Sun\", and \"Dry September\". He set many of his short stories and novels in Yoknapatawpha County—which was based on and nearly geographically identical to Lafayette County (of which his hometown of Oxford, Mississippi, is the county seat). Yoknapatawpha was Faulkner's \"postage stamp\", and the bulk of work that it represents is widely considered by critics to amount to one of the most monumental fictional creations in the history of literature. Three of his novels, The Hamlet, The Town and The Mansion, known collectively as the Snopes Trilogy, document the town of Jefferson and its environs, as an extended family headed by Flem Snopes insinuates itself into the lives and psyches of the general populace.[54]\nHis short story \"A Rose for Emily\" was his first story published in a major magazine, the Forum, but received little attention from the public. After revisions and reissues, it gained popularity and is now considered one of his best.\nFaulkner was known for his experimental style with meticulous attention to diction and cadence. In contrast to the minimalist understatement of his contemporary Ernest Hemingway, Faulkner made frequent use of \"stream of consciousness\" in his writing, and wrote often highly emotional, subtle, cerebral, complex, and sometimes Gothic or grotesque stories of a wide variety of characters including former slaves or descendants of slaves, poor white, agrarian, or working-class Southerners, and Southern aristocrats.\nIn an interview with The Paris Review in 1956, Faulkner remarked:\nLet the writer take up surgery or bricklaying if he is interested in technique. There is no mechanical way to get the writing done, no shortcut. The young writer would be a fool to follow a theory. Teach yourself by your own mistakes; people learn only by error. The good artist believes that nobody is good enough to give him advice. He has supreme vanity. No matter how much he admires the old writer, he wants to beat him.\nAnother esteemed Southern writer, Flannery O'Connor, stated that \"the presence alone of Faulkner in our midst makes a great difference in what the writer can and cannot permit himself to do. Nobody wants his mule and wagon stalled on the same track the Dixie Limited is roaring down\".[55]\nFaulkner wrote two volumes of poetry which were published in small printings, The Marble Faun (1924), and A Green Bough (1933), and a collection of mystery stories, Knight's Gambit (1949).\nLegacy[edit]\nFaulkner's home Rowan Oak is now maintained by the University of Mississippi.\nFaulkner's work has been examined by many critics from a wide variety of critical perspectives, including his position on slavery in the South and his view that desegregation was not an idea to be forced, arguing desegregation should \"go slow\" so as not to upend the southern way of life. The essayist and novelist James Baldwin was highly critical of his views around integration.[56]\nThe New Critics became interested in Faulkner's work, with Cleanth Brooks writing The Yoknapatawpha Country and Michael Millgate writing The Achievement of William Faulkner. Since then, critics have looked at Faulkner's work using other approaches, such as feminist and psychoanalytic methods.[32][57] Faulkner's works have been placed within the literary traditions of modernism and the Southern Renaissance.[58]\nAccording to critic and translator Valerie Miles, Faulkner's influence on Latin American fiction is considerable, with fictional worlds created by Gabriel García Márquez (Macondo) and Juan Carlos Onetti (Santa Maria) being \"very much in the vein of\" Yoknapatawpha: \"Carlos Fuentes's The Death of Artemio Cruz wouldn't exist if not for As I Lay Dying\".[59] Fuentes himself cited Faulkner as one of the most important writers to him.[60] Faulkner also had great influence on Mario Vargas Llosa, particularly on the early novels The Time of the Hero, The Green House and Conversation in the Cathedral. Vargas Llosa has claimed that during his student years he learned more from Yoknapatawpha than from classes.[61]\nThe works of William Faulkner are a clear influence on the French novelist Claude Simon,[62] and the Portuguese novelist António Lobo Antunes.[63]\nAfter his death, Estelle and their daughter, Jill, lived at Rowan Oak until Estelle's death in 1972. The property was sold to the University of Mississippi that same year. The house and furnishings are maintained much as they were in Faulkner's day. Faulkner's scribblings are preserved on the wall, including the day-by-day outline covering a week he wrote on the walls of his small study to help him keep track of the plot twists in his novel, A Fable.[64]\nFaulkner's final work, The Reivers, was adapted into a 1969 film starring Steve McQueen.[65]\nSome of Faulkner's works have been adapted into films such as James Franco's As I Lay Dying (2013). They have received a polarized response, with many critics contending that Faulkner's works are \"unfilmable\".[66]\nAwards[edit]\nFaulkner was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature for \"his powerful and artistically unique contribution to the modern American novel\".[67] It was awarded at the following year's banquet along with the 1950 Prize to Bertrand Russell.[68] Faulkner detested the fame and glory that resulted from his recognition. His aversion was so great that his 17-year-old daughter learned of the Nobel Prize only when she was called to the principal's office during the school day.[69]\nHe donated part of his Nobel money \"to establish a fund to support and encourage new fiction writers\", eventually resulting in the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction, and donated another part to a local Oxford bank, establishing a scholarship fund to help educate African-American teachers at Rust College in nearby Holly Springs, Mississippi. The government of France made Faulkner a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1951.\nFaulkner was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for what are considered \"minor\" novels: his 1954 novel A Fable, which took the Pulitzer in 1955, and the 1962 novel, The Reivers, which was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer in 1963.[3] (The award for A Fable was a controversial political choice. The jury had selected Milton Lott's The Last Hunt for the prize, but Pulitzer Prize Administrator Professor John Hohenberg convinced the Pulitzer board that Faulkner was long overdue for the award, despite A Fable being a lesser work of his, and the board overrode the jury's selection, much to the disgust of its members.)[70] He also won the U.S. National Book Award twice, for Collected Stories in 1951[71] and A Fable in 1955.[72] In 1946 he was one of three finalists for the first Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine Award and placed second to Rhea Galati.[73]\nThe United States Postal Service issued a 22-cent postage stamp in his honor on August 3, 1987.[74] Faulkner had once served as Postmaster at the University of Mississippi, and in his letter of resignation in 1923 wrote:\nAs long as I live under the capitalistic system, I expect to have my life influenced by the demands of moneyed people. But I will be damned if I propose to be at the beck and call of every itinerant scoundrel who has two cents to invest in a postage stamp. This, sir, is my resignation.[75]\nOn October 10, 2019, a Mississippi Writers Trail historical marker was installed at Rowan Oak in Oxford, Mississippi honoring the contributions of William Faulkner to the American literary landscape.[76]\nCollections[edit]\nThe manuscripts of most of Faulkner's works, correspondence, personal papers, and over 300 books from his working library reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia, where he spent much of his time in his final years. The library also houses some of the writer's personal effects and the papers of major Faulkner associates and scholars, such as his biographer Joseph Blotner, bibliographer Linton Massey, and Random House editor Albert Erskine.\nSoutheast Missouri State University, where the Center for Faulkner Studies is located, also owns a generous collection of Faulkner materials, including first editions, manuscripts, letters, photographs, artwork, and many materials pertaining to Faulkner's time in Hollywood. The university possesses many personal files and letters kept by Joseph Blotner, along with books and letters that once belonged to Malcolm Cowley. The university achieved the collection due to a generous donation by Louis Daniel Brodsky, a collector of Faulkner materials, in 1989.\nFurther significant Faulkner materials reside at the University of Mississippi, the Harry Ransom Center, and the New York Public Library.\nThe Random House records at Columbia University also include letters by and to Faulkner.[77][78]\nIn 1966, the United States Military Academy dedicated a William Faulkner Room in its library.[48]\nCritical reception[edit]\nFaulkner's contemporary critical reception was mixed, with The New York Times noting that many critics regarded his work as \"raw slabs of pseudorealism that had relatively little merit as serious writing\".[6]\nIn 1998, the Modern Library ranked his 1929 novel The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century; also on the list were As I Lay Dying (1930) and Light in August (1932). Absalom, Absalom! (1936) appears on similar lists.[79][80]\nSelected list of works[edit]\nMain article: William Faulkner bibliography\nThe Sound and the Fury (1929)\nAs I Lay Dying (1930)\nLight in August (1932)\nAbsalom, Absalom! (1936)\nThe Reivers (1962)\nFilmography[edit]\nFlesh (1932)\nToday We Live (1933)\nThe Story of Temple Drake (1933)\nSubmarine Patrol (1938)\nAir Force (1943)\nTo Have and Have Not (1944)\nThe Big Sleep (1946)\nNotes and references[edit]\nNotes[edit]\n^ The original version was issued as Flags in the Dust in 1973.\nCitations and references[edit]\n^ \"Faulkner, William\". Lexico US Dictionary. Oxford University Press.\n^ \"Faulkner\". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.\n^ a b \"Fiction\" Archived May 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Past winners & finalists by category. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2012-03-28.\n^ Minter (1980), p. 1.\n^ a b c d e MWP: William Faulkner (1897–1962) Archived November 1, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, OleMiss.edu; accessed September 26, 2017.\n^ a b \"Faulkner's Home, Family and Heritage Were Genesis of Yoknapatawpha County\". The New York Times. July 7, 1962. Archived from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved June 17, 2021.\n^ \"Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad\". American-Rails.com. Archived from the original on March 29, 2019. Retrieved March 29, 2019.\n^ Minter (1980), p. 7.\n^ Minter (1980), p. 8.\n^ a b c d Minter, David L. William Faulkner, His Life and Work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980; ISBN 0-8018-2347-1\n^ a b William Faulkner on Nobelprize.org\n^ Minter (1980), p. 8.\n^ Coughlan, pg. 38\n^ Parini (2004), pp. 22–29.\n^ Parini (2004), pp. 36–37.\n^ Padgett, John (November 11, 2008). \"Mississippi Writers' Page: William Faulkner\". The University of Mississippi. Archived from the original on May 12, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.\n^ a b Coughlan, Robert. The Private World of William Faulkner, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), p. 15.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 15—17.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 17, 20.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 17—18.\n^ Watson, James G. (2002). William Faulkner: Self-Presentation and Performance. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-79151-0.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 24—25.\n^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 26–27.\n^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-86576-008-X\n^ \"University of Mississippi: William Faulkner\". Olemiss.edu. Archived from the original on September 22, 2010. Retrieved September 27, 2010.\n^ a b c Porter, Carolyn. William Faulkner Archived December 2, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 0-19-531049-7\n^ Koch (2007), p. 57.\n^ Koch (2007), pp. 55—56.\n^ Koch (2007), pp. 56, 58.\n^ Koch (2007), pp. 58.\n^ a b c d Hannon, Charles. \"Faulkner, William\". The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature. Jay Parini (2004), Oxford University Press, Inc. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.\n^ \"Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society Featuring Words & Music\". Wordsandmusic.org. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.\n^ McKay (2009), p. 119—121.\n^ McKay (2009), p. 119.\n^ Porter, Carolyn. William Faulkner Archived December 2, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 0-19-531049-7, pg. 37\n^ Parini (2004), p. 142.\n^ a b Williamson, Joel. William Faulkner and Southern History Archived March 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; ISBN 0-19-510129-4.\n^ a b Bartunek (2017), p. 98.\n^ a b Bleikasten (2017), p. 218.\n^ a b Solomon, Stefan (2017). William Faulkner in Hollywood: Screenwriting for the Studios. Athens: University of Georgia. p. 1. ISBN 9780820351148. Archived from the original on May 29, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2020.\n^ Bartunek (2017), p. 100.\n^ Solomon, Stefan (2017). William Faulkner in Hollywood: Screenwriting for the Studios. Athens: University of Georgia. p. 1. ISBN 9780820351148. Archived from the original on May 29, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2020.\n^ Bleikasten (2017), pp. 215–220.\n^ Leitch, Thomas (2016). \"Lights! camera! author! authorship as Hollywood performance\". Journal of Screenwriting. 7 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1386/josc.7.1.113_1.\n^ Parini (2004), pp. 198–99.\n^ a b \"Obituary: Meta Wilde, 86, Faulkner's Lover\". The New York Times. October 21, 1994. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 23, 2016.\n^ a b Capps (1966), p. 3.\n^ \"En kärlekshistoria i Nobelprisklass\", Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish), Sweden, January 9, 2010\n^ Rife (1983), pp. 151—152.\n^ Ringle, Ken (September 25, 1997). \"Faulkner, Between the Lines\". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2021.\n^ Blotner, J. and Frederick L. Gwynn, (eds.) (1959) Faulkner in the University: Conferences at the University of Virginia, 1957–1958.\n^ Jennifer Ciotta. \"Touring William Faulkner's Oxford, Mississippi\". Literarytraveler.com. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved September 27, 2010.\n^ Charlotte Renner, Talking and Writing in Faulkner's Snopes Trilogy, ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLE, The Southern Literary Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, Fall 1982.\n^ Levinger, Larry. \"The Prophet Faulkner.\" Atlantic Monthly 285 (2000): 76.\n^ Cep, Casey (November 23, 2020). \"William Faulkner's Demons\". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on January 22, 2021. Retrieved February 12, 2021.\n^ Wagner-Martin, Linda. William Faulkner: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-87013-612-7.\n^ Abadie, Ann J. and Doreen Fowler. Faulkner and the Southern Renaissance Archived March 6, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1982 ISBN 1-60473-201-6.\n^ Kan, Elianna (April 9, 2015). \"The Forest of Letters: An Interview with Valerie Miles\". The Paris Review. Archived from the original on April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 16, 2015.\n^ The Latin Master The Guardian 5 May 2001\n^ \"The masters who influenced the Latin American Boom: Vargas Llosa and García Márquez took cues from Faulkner\". El Pais. November 21, 2012.\n^ Duncan, Alistair B. Claude Simon and William Faulkner Forum for Modern Language Studies, Volume IX, Issue 3, July 1973, Pages 235–252\n^ Bucaioni, Marco A Huge Debt to 20th Century Modernism? António Lobo Antunes’s Prose Style and his Models, Repositório da Universidade de Lisboa, 2019, p.477-497\n^ Block, Melissa (February 13, 2017). \"William Faulkner's Home Illustrates His Impact On The South\". NPR.org. Archived from the original on August 11, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.\n^ Ebert, Roger (December 29, 1969). \"The Reivers\". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved July 2, 2021.\n^ Bartunek (2017), p. 97.\n^ \"The Nobel Prize in Literature 1949\". Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved July 25, 2009.\n^ \"The Nobel Prize in Literature 1949: Documentary\". Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved July 25, 2009.\n^ Gordon, Debra. \"Faulkner, William\". In Bloom, Harold (ed.) William Faulkner, Bloom's BioCritiques. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishing, 2002 ISBN 0-7910-6378-X\n^ Hohenberg, John. John Hohenberg: The Pursuit of Excellence, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, 1995, pp. 162-163\n^ \"National Book Awards – 1951\" Archived October 28, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-31. (With essays by Neil Baldwin and Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 50- and 60-year anniversary publications.)\n^ \"National Book Awards – 1955\" Archived April 22, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-31. (With acceptance speech by Faulkner and essays by Neil Baldwin and Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 50- and 60-year anniversary publications.)\n^ Jeremiah Rickert. \"Genre Fiction\". Oregon Literary Review. 2 (2). Archived from the original on February 21, 2008.\n^ Scott catalogue #2350.\n^ \"William Faulkner Quits His Post Office Job in Splendid Fashion with a 1924 Resignation Letter\". Openculture. September 30, 2012. Archived from the original on March 25, 2015. Retrieved February 5, 2014.\n^ Friday, Jake Thompson Email the author Published 1:00 pm; October 11; 2019 (October 11, 2019). \"William Faulkner marker added to Mississippi Writers Trail\". The Oxford Eagle. Archived from the original on June 17, 2020. Retrieved June 16, 2020. CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)\n^ \"Random House records, 1925-1999\". Archived from the original on December 29, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2018.\n^ Jaillant (2014)\n^ \"100 Best Novels\". The Modern Library. Archived from the original on February 7, 2010. Retrieved May 11, 2021.\n^ Sherman, Shane. \"The Greatest Books of All time\". The Greatest Books. p. 1. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2021.\nWorks cited[edit]\nBartunek, C. J. (Summer 2017). \"The Wasteland Revisited: William Faulkner's First Year in Hollywood\". South Atlantic Review. 82 (2): 97–116. JSTOR 90013647.\nCapps, Jack L. (Spring 1966). \"West Point's William Faulkner Room\". The Georgia Review. 20 (1): 3–8. JSTOR 41396230.\nWilliam Faulkner: Novels 1930–1935 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, ed.) (Library of America, 1985) ISBN 978-0-940450-26-4\nWilliam Faulkner: Novels 1936–1940 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 1990) ISBN 978-0-940450-55-4\nWilliam Faulkner: Novels 1942–1954 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 1994) ISBN 978-0-940450-85-1\nWilliam Faulkner: Novels 1957–1962 (Noel Polk, ed., with notes by Joseph Blotner) (Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-69-7\nWilliam Faulkner: Novels 1926–1929 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 2006) ISBN 978-1-931082-89-1\nThe Portable Faulkner, ed. Malcolm Cowley ( Viking Press, 1946). ISBN 978-0-14-243728-5\nBlotner, Joseph. Faulkner: A Biography. New York: Random House, 1974. 2 vols.\nBlotner, Joseph. Faulkner: A Biography. New York: Random House, 1984.\nFowler, Doreen, Abadie, Ann. Faulkner and Popular Culture: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1990 ISBN 0-87805-434-0, ISBN 978-0-87805-434-3\nJaillant, Lise. \"'I'm Afraid I've Got Involved With a Nut': New Faulkner Letters.\" Southern Literary Journal 47.1 (2014): 98–114. Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine\nKerr, Elizabeth Margaret, and Kerr, Michael M. William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha: A Kind of Keystone in the Universe. Fordham Univ Press, 1985 ISBN 0-8232-1135-5, ISBN 978-0-8232-1135-7\nKoch, Benjamin (Winter 2007). \"The French Quarter Apprentice: William Faulkner's Modernist Evolution\". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 48 (1): 55–68. JSTOR 4234243.\nLiénard-Yeterian, Marie. 'Faulkner et le cinéma', Paris: Michel Houdiard Editeur, 2010.ISBN 978-2-35692-037-9\nMinter, David L. (1980). William Faulkner, his life and work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.\nMcKay, David (Fall 2009). \"Faulkner's First War: Conflict, Mimesis, and the Resonance of Defeat\". South Central Review. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 26 (3): 119–130. doi:10.1353/scr.0.0062. JSTOR 40645990. S2CID 144583260.\nSensibar, Judith L. The Origins of Faulkner's Art. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. ISBN 0-292-79020-1\nSensibar, Judith L. Faulkner and Love: The Women Who Shaped His Art, A Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-16568-5\nSensibar, Judith L. Vision in Spring. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. ISBN 0-292-78712-X.\nParini, Jay (2004). One Matchless Time: A Life of William Faulkner. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 22–29. ISBN 0-06-621072-0.\nRosella Mamoli Zorzi (2000). William Faulkner in Venice : proceedings of the International Conference Language, Stylistics, Translations. Venice: Marsilio. p. 347. ISBN 9788831776264. OCLC 634327206 – via references.\nRife, David (March 1983). \"Rex Stout and William Faulkner's Nobel Prize Speech\". Journal of Modern Literature. Indiana University Press. 10 (1): 151–152. JSTOR 3831202.\nZeitlin, Michael (Spring 2016). \"Faulkner and the Royal Air Force Canada, 1918\". The Faulkner Journal. Johns Hopkins University. 30 (1): 15–38. doi:10.1353/fau.2016.0009. JSTOR 44578811. S2CID 165335050.\nBleikasten, André (2017). William Faulkner: A Life through Novels. Bloomington: Indiana University. p. 218. ISBN 9780253023322. Retrieved February 13, 2020.\nExternal links[edit]\nWilliam Faulkner at IMDb\nv\nt\ne\nWilliam Faulkner\nBibliography\nNovels\nSoldiers' Pay (1926)\nMosquitoes (1927)\nSartoris / Flags in the Dust (1929 / 1973)\nThe Sound and the Fury (1929)\nAs I Lay Dying (1930)\nSanctuary (1931)\nLight in August (1932)\nPylon (1935)\nAbsalom, Absalom! (1936)\nThe Unvanquished (1938)\nIf I Forget Thee, Jerusalem (1939)\nThe Hamlet (1940)\nGo Down, Moses (1942)\nIntruder in the Dust (1948)\nRequiem for a Nun (1951)\nA Fable (1954)\nThe Town (1957)\nThe Mansion (1959)\nThe Reivers (1962)\nShort story\ncollections\nThese 13 (1931)\nKnight's Gambit (1949)\nCollected Stories (1950)\nShort stories\n\"Landing in Luck\" (1919)\n\"A Rose for Emily\" (1930)\n\"Red Leaves\" (1930)\n\"Dry September\" (1931)\n\"Spotted Horses\" (1931)\n\"That Evening Sun\" (1931)\n\"Mountain Victory\" (1932)\n\"Barn Burning\" (1939)\n\"The Tall Men\" (1941)\n\"Shingles for the Lord\" (1943)\nScreenplays\nFlesh (1932)\nToday We Live (1933)\nSubmarine Patrol (1938)\nTo Have and Have Not (1944)\nThe Big Sleep (1945)\nChildren's books\nThe Wishing Tree (1927)\nRelated\nWilliam Clark Falkner (great-grandfather)\nRowan Oak home\nPapers and manuscripts\nWilliam Faulkner Foundation\nYoknapatawpha County\nCompson family\nLouis Grenier\nIkkemotubbe\nGavin Stevens\nThomas Sutpen\nSnopes trilogy\nSouthern Renaissance\nFaux Faulkner contest\nPEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction\nv\nt\ne\nLaureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature\n1901–1925\n1901: Sully Prudhomme\n1902: Theodor Mommsen\n1903: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson\n1904: Frédéric Mistral / José Echegaray\n1905: Henryk Sienkiewicz\n1906: Giosuè Carducci\n1907: Rudyard Kipling\n1908: Rudolf Eucken\n1909: Selma Lagerlöf\n1910: Paul Heyse\n1911: Maurice Maeterlinck\n1912: Gerhart Hauptmann\n1913: Rabindranath Tagore\n1914\n1915: Romain Rolland\n1916: Verner von Heidenstam\n1917: Karl Gjellerup / Henrik Pontoppidan\n1918\n1919: Carl Spitteler\n1920: Knut Hamsun\n1921: Anatole France\n1922: Jacinto Benavente\n1923: W. B. Yeats\n1924: Władysław Reymont\n1925: George Bernard Shaw\n1926–1950\n1926: Grazia Deledda\n1927: Henri Bergson\n1928: Sigrid Undset\n1929: Thomas Mann\n1930: Sinclair Lewis\n1931: Erik Axel Karlfeldt\n1932: John Galsworthy\n1933: Ivan Bunin\n1934: Luigi Pirandello\n1935\n1936: Eugene O'Neill\n1937: Roger Martin du Gard\n1938: Pearl S. Buck\n1939: Frans Eemil Sillanpää\n1940\n1941\n1942\n1943\n1944: Johannes V. Jensen\n1945: Gabriela Mistral\n1946: Hermann Hesse\n1947: André Gide\n1948: T. S. Eliot\n1949: William Faulkner\n1950: Bertrand Russell\n1951–1975\n1951: Pär Lagerkvist\n1952: François Mauriac\n1953: Winston Churchill\n1954: Ernest Hemingway\n1955: Halldór Laxness\n1956: Juan Ramón Jiménez\n1957: Albert Camus\n1958: Boris Pasternak\n1959: Salvatore Quasimodo\n1960: Saint-John Perse\n1961: Ivo Andrić\n1962: John Steinbeck\n1963: Giorgos Seferis\n1964: Jean-Paul Sartre (declined award)\n1965: Mikhail Sholokhov\n1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon / Nelly Sachs\n1967: Miguel Ángel Asturias\n1968: Yasunari Kawabata\n1969: Samuel Beckett\n1970: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn\n1971: Pablo Neruda\n1972: Heinrich Böll\n1973: Patrick White\n1974: Eyvind Johnson / Harry Martinson\n1975: Eugenio Montale\n1976–2000\n1976: Saul Bellow\n1977: Vicente Aleixandre\n1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer\n1979: Odysseas Elytis\n1980: Czesław Miłosz\n1981: Elias Canetti\n1982: Gabriel García Márquez\n1983: William Golding\n1984: Jaroslav Seifert\n1985: Claude Simon\n1986: Wole Soyinka\n1987: Joseph Brodsky\n1988: Naguib Mahfouz\n1989: Camilo José Cela\n1990: Octavio Paz\n1991: Nadine Gordimer\n1992: Derek Walcott\n1993: Toni Morrison\n1994: Kenzaburō Ōe\n1995: Seamus Heaney\n1996: Wisława Szymborska\n1997: Dario Fo\n1998: José Saramago\n1999: Günter Grass\n2000: Gao Xingjian\n2001–present\n2001: V. S. Naipaul\n2002: Imre Kertész\n2003: J. M. Coetzee\n2004: Elfriede Jelinek\n2005: Harold Pinter\n2006: Orhan Pamuk\n2007: Doris Lessing\n2008: J. M. G. Le Clézio\n2009: Herta Müller\n2010: Mario Vargas Llosa\n2011: Tomas Tranströmer\n2012: Mo Yan\n2013: Alice Munro\n2014: Patrick Modiano\n2015: Svetlana Alexievich\n2016: Bob Dylan\n2017: Kazuo Ishiguro\n2018: Olga Tokarczuk\n2019: Peter Handke\n2020: Louise Glück\nv\nt\ne\n1949 Nobel Prize laureates\nChemistry\nWilliam Giauque (United States)\nLiterature\nWilliam Faulkner (United States)\nPeace\nJohn Boyd Orr (Great Britain)\nPhysics\nHideki Yukawa (Japan)\nPhysiology or Medicine\nWalter Rudolf Hess (Switzerland)\nAntónio Egas Moniz (Portugal)\nNobel Prize recipients\n1944\n1945\n1946\n1947\n1948\n1949\n1950\n1951\n1952\n1953\n1954\nv\nt\ne\nPulitzer Prize for Fiction\n1918–1925\nHis Family by Ernest Poole (1918)\nThe Magnificent Ambersons by Booth Tarkington (1919)\nThe Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton (1921)\nAlice Adams by Booth Tarkington (1922)\nOne of Ours by Willa Cather (1923)\nThe Able McLaughlins by Margaret Wilson (1924)\nSo Big by Edna Ferber (1925)\n1926–1950\nArrowsmith by Sinclair Lewis (declined) (1926)\nEarly Autumn by Louis Bromfield (1927)\nThe Bridge of San Luis Rey by Thornton Wilder (1928)\nScarlet Sister Mary by Julia Peterkin (1929)\nLaughing Boy by Oliver La Farge (1930)\nYears of Grace by Margaret Ayer Barnes (1931)\nThe Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck (1932)\nThe Store by Thomas Sigismund Stribling (1933)\nLamb in His Bosom by Caroline Pafford Miller (1934)\nNow in November by Josephine Winslow Johnson (1935)\nHoney in the Horn by Harold L. Davis (1936)\nGone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell (1937)\nThe Late George Apley by John Phillips Marquand (1938)\nThe Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings (1939)\nThe Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck (1940)\nIn This Our Life by Ellen Glasgow (1942)\nDragon's Teeth by Upton Sinclair (1943)\nJourney in the Dark by Martin Flavin (1944)\nA Bell for Adano by John Hersey (1945)\nAll the King's Men by Robert Penn Warren (1947)\nTales of the South Pacific by James A. Michener (1948)\nGuard of Honor by James Gould Cozzens (1949)\nThe Way West by A. B. Guthrie Jr. (1950)\n1951–1975\nThe Town by Conrad Richter (1951)\nThe Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk (1952)\nThe Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway (1953)\nA Fable by William Faulkner (1955)\nAndersonville by MacKinlay Kantor (1956)\nA Death in the Family by James Agee (1958)\nThe Travels of Jaimie McPheeters by Robert Lewis Taylor (1959)\nAdvise and Consent by Allen Drury (1960)\nTo Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee (1961)\nThe Edge of Sadness by Edwin O'Connor (1962)\nThe Reivers by William Faulkner (1963)\nThe Keepers of the House by Shirley Ann Grau (1965)\nThe Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter by Katherine Anne Porter (1966)\nThe Fixer by Bernard Malamud (1967)\nThe Confessions of Nat Turner by William Styron (1968)\nHouse Made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday (1969)\nThe Collected Stories of Jean Stafford by Jean Stafford (1970)\nAngle of Repose by Wallace Stegner (1972)\nThe Optimist's Daughter by Eudora Welty (1973)\nNo award given (1974)\nThe Killer Angels by Michael Shaara (1975)\n1976–2000\nHumboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow (1976)\nNo award given (1977)\nElbow Room by James Alan McPherson (1978)\nThe Stories of John Cheever by John Cheever (1979)\nThe Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer (1980)\nA Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole (1981)\nRabbit Is Rich by John Updike (1982)\nThe Color Purple by Alice Walker (1983)\nIronweed by William Kennedy (1984)\nForeign Affairs by Alison Lurie (1985)\nLonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry (1986)\nA Summons to Memphis by Peter Taylor (1987)\nBeloved by Toni Morrison (1988)\nBreathing Lessons by Anne Tyler (1989)\nThe Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos (1990)\nRabbit at Rest by John Updike (1991)\nA Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley (1992)\nA Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler (1993)\nThe Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx (1994)\nThe Stone Diaries by Carol Shields (1995)\nIndependence Day by Richard Ford (1996)\nMartin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser (1997)\nAmerican Pastoral by Philip Roth (1998)\nThe Hours by Michael Cunningham (1999)\nInterpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (2000)\n2001–present\nThe Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon (2001)\nEmpire Falls by Richard Russo (2002)\nMiddlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides (2003)\nThe Known World by Edward P. Jones (2004)\nGilead by Marilynne Robinson (2005)\nMarch by Geraldine Brooks (2006)\nThe Road by Cormac McCarthy (2007)\nThe Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz (2008)\nOlive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout (2009)\nTinkers by Paul Harding (2010)\nA Visit from the Goon Squad by Jennifer Egan (2011)\nNo award given (2012)\nThe Orphan Master's Son by Adam Johnson (2013)\nThe Goldfinch by Donna Tartt (2014)\nAll the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr (2015)\nThe Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen (2016)\nThe Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead (2017)\nLess by Andrew Sean Greer (2018)\nThe Overstory by Richard Powers (2019)\nThe Nickel Boys by Colson Whitehead (2020)\nThe Night Watchman by Louise Erdrich (2021)\nv\nt\ne\nNational Book Award for Fiction (1950–1974)\nThe Man with the Golden Arm by Nelson Algren (1950)\nCollected Stories of William Faulkner by William Faulkner (1951)\nFrom Here to Eternity by James Jones (1952)\nInvisible Man by Ralph Ellison (1953)\nThe Adventures of Augie March by Saul Bellow (1954)\nA Fable by William Faulkner (1955)\nTen North Frederick by John O'Hara (1956)\nThe Field of Vision by Wright Morris (1957)\nThe Wapshot Chronicle by John Cheever (1958)\nThe Magic Barrel by Bernard Malamud (1959)\nGoodbye, Columbus by Philip Roth (1960)\nThe Waters of Kronos by Conrad Richter (1961)\nThe Moviegoer by Walker Percy (1962)\nMorte d'Urban by J. F. Powers (1963)\nThe Centaur by John Updike (1964)\nHerzog by Saul Bellow (1965)\nThe Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter by Katherine Anne Porter (1966)\nThe Fixer by Bernard Malamud (1967)\nThe Eighth Day by Thornton Wilder (1968)\nSteps by Jerzy Kosiński (1969)\nthem by Joyce Carol Oates (1970)\nMr. Sammler's Planet by Saul Bellow (1971)\nThe Complete Stories by Flannery O'Connor (1972)\nChimera by John Barth (1973)\nAugustus by John Williams (1973)\nGravity's Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon (1974)\nA Crown of Feathers and Other Stories by Isaac Bashevis Singer (1974)\nComplete list\n(1950–1974)\n(1975–1999)\n(2000–2024)\nAuthority control\nGeneral\nIntegrated Authority File (Germany)\nISNI\n1\nVIAF\n1\nWorldCat\nNational libraries\nNorway\nSpain\nFrance (data)\nCatalonia\nItaly\nUnited States\nLatvia\nJapan\nCzech Republic\nAustralia\nGreece\nKorea\nNetherlands\nPoland\nSweden\nVatican\nArt research institutes\nArtist Names (Getty)\nScientific databases\nCiNii 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit 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{"content":"Adopt-a-user Home • Talk || Adoptee's Area • Resources || Adopter's Area • Resources • List of Adopters || Teahouse || Live Help Chat (IRC)\nShortcuts\nWP:AAU\nWP:ADOPT\nWP:ADOPTION\nWP:WIKIADOPT\nThe Adopt-a-user program is designed to help new and inexperienced users by pairing them with more experienced Wikipedians. These editors (referred to as adopters or mentors) will \"adopt\" newer users, guiding them along the way as they learn about Wikipedia and its various aspects.\nThe project aims to inform new users about the ins and outs of Wikipedia and steer them away from making less-than-constructive edits or misplaced test edits. Well over a thousand users have been involved in the program at one time or another.\nSo, if you're new or inexperienced and would like to:\nAsk questions about editing, contributing to Wikipedia and creating your first article\nLearn to navigate processes and policies and guidelines\nGet help with article creation or image uploads or any other activities on Wikipedia\n. . .then an adopter should be able to help you. Adoption lasts as long as the adopter and adoptee want to continue, so you can stop any time if you feel you've learned enough, or you'd like to take a break.\nIf you are looking to contribute to Wikipedia but do not intend to remain as an active user well after adoption, then this program is not for you. Adoption is for users who intend to be long-term contributors and members of the community, so if you are simply here to create one article, see this page for help and do not request adoption.\nUsers who don't want adopting – but who do need help with one-off problems – might like to consider whether the Teahouse question forum, the Help desk, or a {{Help me}} request might be better ways to get quick answers.\nParticipation\nBeing adopted is easy and fun. Why not select an adopter from the list of adopters and contact them directly to request adoption? If you choose an adopter who shares your interests, they will be more able to assist you while you learn under their tutelage.\nView the list of adopters!\nAlternatively, you can simply edit your user page, add the following text, {{subst:dated|adoptme}} and then Publish the page. This will put you on a list of potential adoptees and display the following userbox on your page:\nThis user seeks adoption by an experienced editor. (Users offering adoption)\nHowever, as with many areas of Wikipedia, a pro-active approach is far more likely to get you adopted. Just leaving the adoption request on your userpage could result in a long delay before your request is noticed or answered. For more information, visit the Adoptee's Area and the Adopt-a-user talk page. (If you are interested in becoming an Adopter yourself, please visit the Adopter's Area.)\nIs adoption right for you?\nAdoption needs a commitment from you! You are expected to stick around, practice and learn to work with others, and demonstrate a willingness to contribute across a broad range of Wikipedia activities. Adoption isn't for getting short-term assistance with a particular problem. There are other help forums for that.\nIf you're new or inexperienced and would like a single point of contact to:\nGuide you through understanding our key policies and 'how to' guidelines\nDiscuss a range of questions about editing, contributing to Wikipedia and possibly create your first article\nReceive guidance on interacting with other editors, article creation, image uploads and a host of other activities on Wikipedia, like help out by preventing-vandalism or doing routine maintenance tasks\n...then finding an Adopter could be just the thing for you!\nWhilst many adopters take a structured, step-by-step approach to guiding new editors through the various elements of working on Wikipedia, others are more informal. They may prefer to simply steer you through key areas you're having difficulty with, and answer questions when you encounter problems.\nSimilar Programs\nThe Teahouse\nAn area where friendly Wikipedians will answer your questions, 24 hours a day.\nCounter-Vandalism Unit Academy\nA training program for those editors who want to focus on reverting vandalism\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Adopt-a-user&oldid=1027845304\"\nCategories:\nWikipedia Adopt-a-user\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nProject page\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nالعربية\nDansk\nDeutsch\nΕλληνικά\nEspañol\nفارسی\nFrançais\nGalego\nHrvatski\nBahasa Indonesia\nÍslenska\nItaliano\nעברית\nMagyar\nNederlands\nNordfriisk\nNorsk bokmål\nOccitan\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nSvenska\nไทย\nZeêuws\n中文\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 10:08 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:U2OJPXXE3JCPSLAB6UPB3TEGBDHKPTAO","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:fec8808f-96ef-4ae5-8a57-df5b44e42dcf>","warc-identified-content-language":"eng,nno","content-type":"text/plain","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:2f59440d-3700-418c-aa94-5c63bab316c3>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:40:45Z","warc-target-uri":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Adopt-a-user","content-length":"5385","warc-type":"conversion"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"en","prob":0.6775619},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.89475197},{"label":"en","prob":0.9124037},{"label":"en","prob":0.8080786},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9665413},{"label":"en","prob":0.9133991},{"label":"en","prob":0.9973436},{"label":"en","prob":0.88892317},{"label":"en","prob":0.8652677},{"label":"en","prob":0.90270793},{"label":"en","prob":0.9722449},{"label":"en","prob":0.9472306},{"label":"en","prob":0.9481925},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9233121},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9442225},{"label":"en","prob":0.96405846},{"label":"en","prob":0.941502},{"label":"en","prob":0.95813584},{"label":"en","prob":0.9889479},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8711697},{"label":"en","prob":0.9305441},{"label":"en","prob":0.9616811},{"label":"en","prob":0.95037717},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8722609},{"label":"en","prob":0.9361416},{"label":"en","prob":0.8586201},{"label":"en","prob":0.9736652},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8735821},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99779063},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8246582},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96736485},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200458},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96017635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200161},{"label":"en","prob":0.98899454},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"el","prob":0.98782945},{"label":"es","prob":0.8222208},null,null,null,{"label":"hr","prob":0.9386292},{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},null,null,null,null,{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,null,null,null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},{"label":"ro","prob":0.99815744},{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},{"label":"th","prob":1.00008},null,{"label":"zh","prob":0.81862706},{"label":"en","prob":0.9671961},{"label":"en","prob":0.99386823},null]}}
{"content":"This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\nFind sources: \"Bilateralism\" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nBilateralism is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism, which is activity by a single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively. When states recognize one another as sovereign states and agree to diplomatic relations, they create a bilateral relationship. States with bilateral ties will exchange diplomatic agents such as ambassadors to facilitate dialogues and cooperations.\nEconomic agreements, such as free trade agreements (FTA) or foreign direct investment (FDI), signed by two states, are a common example of bilateralism. Since most economic agreements are signed according to the specific characteristics of the contracting countries to give preferential treatment to each other, not a generalized principle but a situational differentiation is needed. Thus through bilateralism, states can obtain more tailored agreements and obligations that only apply to particular contracting states. However, the states will face a trade-off because it is more wasteful in transaction costs than the multilateral strategy. In a bilateral strategy, a new contract has to be negotiated for each participant. So it tends to be preferred when transaction costs are low and the member surplus, which corresponds to “producer surplus” in economic terms, is high. Moreover, this will be effective if an influential state wants control over small states from a liberalism perspective, because building a series of bilateral arrangements with small states can increase a state's influence.[1]\nContents\n1 Examples\n2 History\n3 See also\n4 References\n5 External links\nExamples[edit]\nAustralia and Canada have a bilateral relationship; both have similar governments and share similar values as well as having the same titular head of state. In 1895 the Government of Canada sent John Larke to Sydney to establish a trade commission and in 1935 Canada sent Charles Burchell (Australia's first Canadian High Commissioner) to formalise ties between the two countries.[2] Both nations have been wartime allies, and their trade and economic relations are strong.\nIndia and Nepal have had a bilateral relationship since ancient times even before the birth of the Buddha in 544 BC. In modern times, this traditional relationship has been confirmed by written treaties. The India-Nepal treaty of friendship was signed in July 1950. That provided economically and politically important effects for both countries. In 2011, the two countries signed a new Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement. These bilateral treaties have played a significant role in the evolution of international investment law. Citizens of both countries can move across the border freely without passport or visa, live and work in either country and own property and business in either country. Gurkhas form a part of the Indian Army. Millions of Nepalis have been living in India for long periods of time.[3]\nThe United States has bilateral relationships with several East Asian countries, particularly South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. The United States formed a bilateral alliance with Japan during the Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan. The U.S. also formed a bilateral alliance with Korea during the 1953 U.S.-South Korea Status of Forces Agreement and one with the Republic of China during the 1954 Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty. Unlike its relationship with European nations which takes multilateral alliances centered in NATO, the U.S. prefers a direct relationship with each of the East Asian countries. Rather than establishing a security alliance or hosting a summit, the U.S. tends to make a direct connection with each nation. From both historical and political perspectives, every country in the East Asian region can be an opponent or a target to any other. Therefore, it is comparatively difficult to construct multilateral alliances, which depend upon mutual reliance. A main U.S. reason for choosing a bilateral treaty was to avoid conflict, as might have been the case with multilateral treaties (e.g. risk of multilateral treaty defects). An example is the \"hub and spokes\" reference, where the U.S. is the \"hub\" and the East Asian countries are the \"spokes\"; they each have a connection with the U.S. but not with each other.[4][5]\nThere are multiple factors that are unique when discussing why the United States has chosen to form bilateral relations particularly with East Asian countries, in comparison to the multilateral relations, such as NATO. Firstly, the United States had existing and longer relations with countries in Europe. Thus it was easier for the United States to build and form this multilateral bond. Victor Cha states \"Acheson argued that NATO was the product of a long, deliberative process, that West European powers had carefully developed their plan for collective defense before asking for U.S. help, and most revealing, that the United States viewed NATO as a mutual collective defense arrangement.\"[6] Another factor which contributed is the geography of East Asia compared to Europe. Because Europe is \"connected\", it is better for the security and economy. Whereas in East Asia, states are divided over a large space and is separated by large amounts of water and distance, making it a less admirable condition to form multilateral bonds for the United States. In East Asia, there are also a variety of regimes: communist, authoritarian regimes as well as democratic regimes. In comparison to the states in NATO, who are consisted of democracies, causing a level of difficulty in creating multilateral relations. Another factor is that the states in NATO recognised the same source of threat, which was USSR. This allowed for an agreement amongst these NATO states to form this multilateral relation. However, in the case with East Asia, there was no unified threat. For the ROC (Republic of China, otherwise known as Taiwan), China was seen as the threat. For the ROK (Republic of Korea, otherwise known as South Korea), DPRK (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, otherwise known as North Korea) was the threat. Thus there was a great level of difficulty in the United States forming an alliance with East Asia as the threats were different. Among many of the different explanations behind the United States’ choice of intervening in the bilateral alliances in East Asia, some social historians added that the U.S. decision makers firmly believed that unlike Europe, “inferior” Asians presumably did not possess the level of sophistication and responsibility that was required for the complex organization of the multilateral security arrangements. Christopher Hemmer and Peter J. Katzenstein concluded, “trust [was] absent, religion and domestic value were shared in only few cases, and race invoked as a powerful force separating the U.S. from Asia”.[7]\nVictor Cha proposed the Powerplay (theory) in his article “Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliances Systems in Asia”, which explains the reasons behind the United States’ decision in creating a series of bilateral alliances with East Asian countries. Powerplay is commonly used in any political or social situation when one uses its knowledge or information against others in order to gain benefits using situational advantages the one has. According to the powerplay theory, the alliances were created to both contain and constrain potential rogue allies (rogue state) from performing aggressive behavior that would trigger larger military conflict and involvement. The rogue allies (rogue states) include Taiwan's Kai Shek Chiang, who was publicly planning and looking forward to take back mainland China, and Korea's Syngman Rhee, who wanted to unify the Korean peninsula. The United States was also worried that Japan would recover its regional power in Asia. Cha concludes that the postwar United States planners had selected such a type of security architecture as an attempt to prevent aggression by the East Asian pro-west dictators and to increase leverage and states' dependency on the U.S. economy.\nThe U.S.-Japan alliance was a bilateral security order created with the intention of preventing the expansion of Soviet power and communism in the Asia Pacific. The U.S. provided Japan, and the other Asia Pacific countries, with the offer of security protection and access to American markets, technology, and supplies in exchange for providing diplomatic, economic, and logistical support for the U.S., as this, according to John Ikenberry, would lead to the “wider, American-centered anti-Communist postwar order\".[8]\nThe United States also has a history of bilateral agreements with Panama, beginning with the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) which established the United States' right to build a canal and own it and adjacent property across the otherwise-sovereign nation of Panama. This was replaced by The Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal and the Panama Canal Treaty (both signed 1977). A Bilateral Investment Treaty Amendment was signed by the two countries in 2000, and several more limited agreements have been signed between various law-enforcement and financial agencies of the two countries.\nHistory[edit]\nThere has been a long debate on the merits of bilateralism versus multilateralism. The first rejection of bilateralism came after the First World War when many politicians concluded that the complex pre-war system of bilateral treaties had made war inevitable. This led to the creation of the multilateral League of Nations (which was disbanded in failure after 26 years).\nA similar reaction against bilateral trade agreements occurred after the Great Depression, when it was argued that such agreements helped produce a cycle of rising tariffs that deepened the economic downturn. Thus, after the Second World War, the West turned to multilateral agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).[citation needed]\nDespite the high profile of modern multilateral systems such as the United Nations and World Trade Organization, most diplomacy is still done at the bilateral level. Bilateralism has a flexibility and ease lacking in most compromise-dependent multilateral systems. In addition, disparities in power, resources, money, armament, or technology are more easily exploitable by the stronger side in bilateral diplomacy, which powerful states might consider as a positive aspect of it, compared to the more consensus-driven multilateral form of diplomacy, where the one state-one vote rule applies.[citation needed]\nA 2017 study found that bilateral tax treaties, even if intended to \"coordinate policies between countries to avoid double taxation and encourage international investment\", had the unintended consequence of allowing \"multinationals to engage in treaty shopping, states’ fiscal autonomy is limited, and governments tend to maintain lower tax rates.\"[9]\nSee also[edit]\nBilateral trade\nBilateral treaty\nList of bilateral free trade agreements\nMultilateralism\nMultistakeholderism\nUnilateralism\nReferences[edit]\n^ Thompson, Alexander. \"Multilateralism, Bilateralism and Regime Design\" (PDF). Department of Political Science Ohio State University. Retrieved 23 September 2013.\n^ \"Canada country brief - September 2010\". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 3 June 2011.\n^ [1] Oxford Journal\n^ \"BBS Reports, December 2013\" (PDF). EAI.or.kr. Retrieved 16 July 2017.\n^ Cha, Victor D. (9 January 2010). \"Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia\". International Security. 34 (3): 158–196. doi:10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158. S2CID 57566528. Retrieved 16 July 2017 – via Project MUSE.\n^ Cha, Victor D. (Winter 2009–10). \"Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia\". International Security. 34 (3): 158–196. doi:10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158. S2CID 57566528.\n^ \"Why is There No NATO in Asia? Collective Identity, Regionalism, and the Origins of Multilateralism\" (PDF). Harvard.edu. Retrieved 16 July 2017. [dead link]\n^ [2] Archived 5 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Ikenberry G. John. \"American Hegemony and East Asian Order.\" Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 354-355, September 2004.\n^ Arel-Bundock, Vincent (1 April 2017). \"The Unintended Consequences of Bilateralism: Treaty Shopping and International Tax Policy\". International Organization. 71 (2): 349–371. doi:10.1017/S0020818317000108. ISSN 0020-8183. S2CID 157493354.\nExternal links[edit]\nLook up bilateralism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nThe Rise of Bilateralism\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bilateralism&oldid=1040818650\"\nCategories:\nBilateral relations\nInternational relations theory\nHidden categories:\nAll articles with dead external links\nArticles with dead external links from May 2021\nWebarchive template wayback links\nArticles with short description\nShort description is different from Wikidata\nArticles needing additional references from July 2009\nAll articles needing additional references\nUse dmy dates from May 2015\nAll articles with unsourced statements\nArticles with unsourced statements from July 2017\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nالعربية\nAzərbaycanca\nবাংলা\nDeutsch\nEesti\nΕλληνικά\nفارسی\nहिन्दी\nBahasa Indonesia\nעברית\nҚазақша\nМакедонски\nBahasa Melayu\nМонгол\n日本語\nNorsk bokmål\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nPolski\nРусский\nTagalog\nУкраїнська\nاردو\nTiếng Việt\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 26 August 2021, at 21:21 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"14726","warc-identified-content-language":"eng","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:17:40Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:2af9ef91-5664-4178-9a21-a4eeed24a794>","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:81433180-49aa-4336-9110-83830cc4062c>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateralism","warc-block-digest":"sha1:DY6KWBGDI35Z42XMHKZCOLDTVKWBB6HI"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"en","prob":0.79678583},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"en","prob":0.9323049},{"label":"en","prob":0.80804724},{"label":"en","prob":0.95850503},{"label":"en","prob":0.9492669},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99478537},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8685007},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9628159},{"label":"en","prob":0.9616099},{"label":"en","prob":0.94948584},{"label":"en","prob":0.97271097},{"label":"en","prob":0.96575683},{"label":"en","prob":0.952151},{"label":"en","prob":0.96856916},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9699124},{"label":"en","prob":0.9629569},{"label":"en","prob":0.92691594},{"label":"en","prob":0.9334184},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8275341},{"label":"en","prob":0.83307904},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8154492},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8706749},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8585929},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8637},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.92510575},{"label":"en","prob":0.8235312},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83347005},{"label":"en","prob":0.95480317},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.856612},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9544384},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9475949},{"label":"en","prob":0.88783306},{"label":"en","prob":0.984943},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8735821},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99779063},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8177732},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8246582},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96736485},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200458},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96017635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200161},{"label":"en","prob":0.98899454},null,null,null,{"label":"az","prob":0.9951163},null,null,{"label":"et","prob":1.000088},{"label":"el","prob":0.98782945},null,{"label":"hi","prob":0.883866},{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},null,{"label":"kk","prob":0.98558193},{"label":"mk","prob":0.97717184},{"label":"ms","prob":0.8052252},null,{"label":"ja","prob":1.0000484},null,{"label":"pa","prob":0.9999484},null,null,null,{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},null,{"label":"vi","prob":0.99561477},{"label":"en","prob":0.9671961},{"label":"en","prob":0.98214793},null]}}
{"content":"National Steel Co., Boston and Colorado Smelting Co., Fritchle Automobile & Battery Co., Buick Motor Co.\nKnown for\n1908 electric automobile endurance run, long-range electric vehicles, battery and automotive patents\nChildren\n2\nOliver Parker Fritchle (September 15, 1874 – August 1951) was an American chemist, storage battery innovator, and entrepreneur with electric vehicle and wind power generation businesses during the early twentieth century. His initial battery patent was awarded in 1903[1] and by 1904 he had established what was to become the Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company in Denver, Colorado.[2] He was an early adaptor and developer of significant automotive technologies, such as regenerative braking[3] and hybrid drivetrains,[4] that did not reemerge on production vehicles of major car companies until late in the twentieth century.\nFritchle achieved national celebrity for his 1908 Lincoln-to-New York endurance run in one of the first electric automobile models produced by his firm.[5] He covered the 1,800 miles (2,900 km) in a stock Victoria Phaeton achieving as many as 108 miles (174 km) between charges[6] through extremes in weather, terrain, and road conditions; a remarkable feat with an electric vehicle of that day. The trip journal and photographs subsequently published to promote The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric provided unique insight to the state of road and electric power infrastructure within the United States during the early twentieth century.[7]\nContents\n1 Early years\n2 Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company\n3 1908 Lincoln-to-New York electric endurance run\n3.1 Challenge and timing\n3.2 Roads\n3.2.1 Route and log\n3.3 Highlights\n4 After The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric\n5 Patents and papers\n6 Notes\n7 References\n8 External links\nEarly years[edit]\nFritchle was born in Mount Hope, Ohio to a family of Ohio natives. His father was a veteran of the Civil War and a merchant in Holmes County. Fritchle attended local public schools followed by five years at Ohio Wesleyan University and two at Ohio State University where he graduated in 1896 with a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.[2]\nHe worked as a chemical engineer at the National Steel Company for two years after college. During this time he began experimenting with storage batteries with an interest in improving their suitability for vehicle applications. Around 1899 he relocated to Denver, Colorado and became chief chemist for the Henry E. Wood Company, an ore analysis concern. He worked there for two years prior to joining the Boston and Colorado Smelting Company of Argo as their chief chemist and assayer.[2]\nFritchle Automobile & Battery Company[edit]\n1912 Fritchle Four-Passenger Tourer\nHe established the O. P. Fritchle Garage Company in Denver, Colorado shortly after being granted his first battery patent in 1903.[1] The new firm specialized in sales, maintenance, and recharging of electric vehicles, but also represented gasoline powered lines such as Hammer.[8] He began developing and manufacturing better batteries in order to enhance the range, performance, and durability of his customers' vehicles, but found automobile technology the more limiting factor after several years of battery improvements. The Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company was established by 1908 to manufacture vehicles of his own design and by 1917 he was qualified as one of the few automotive engineers in Colorado.[9]\nHis first design halved the power consumption, nearly doubling the range, relative to competitors' vehicles.[2] One contribution to this advantage was his successful implementation of what was known then as \"electric brakes\"[3] and more recently as regenerative brakes. The concept of using the motor to recharge the batteries while slowing an electric vehicle was not new even as early as 1908. However, implementing it effectively in automobiles and trucks was still quite tricky with the technology of the period[10] and required development of a proprietary controller.[11]\nFritchle Milostat on a 100-Mile Battery\nFritchle produced a number of practical innovations in addition to his battery and vehicle patents, such as one of the first automobile child seats. The Fritchle Milostat was a clever solution to the problem electric vehicle operators had accurately estimating the driving distance available from their batteries. It was simply a hydrometer calibrated to display the percentage of charge remaining rather than the normal, but difficult to interpret, specific gravity reading.[12]\nThe Fritchle Automobile products evolved over five years from the carriage-like Phaeton to a broad line of cars and a commercial truck. Models made at various times during more than a decade of production included the Victoria Phaeton, four-passenger coupe, roadster, Stanhope runabout, two-passenger torpedo runabout, four-passenger tourer, a luxury five-passenger brougham,[13] and a one thousand pound commercial truck.[14]\nFritchle took steps to establish a company presence in Washington, D.C. at the end of his 1908 cross-country trip.[5] Additional efforts to expand into the lucrative East Coast market were made in 1912 with the opening of a sales office on Fifth Avenue in New York City[3] and selection of a manufacturing site in Bridgeport, Connecticut[15] as the International Fritchle Company. However, these did not pan out and Fritchle Automobiles remained primarily a small regional manufacturer through the end of production.\n1908 Lincoln-to-New York electric endurance run[edit]\nFritchle Victoria Phaeton\nPrice (circa 1909): $2,000 USD\nClass: Electric\nBattery: 28 cells, 800 lb (360 kg).\nMotor: 10 horsepower\nSpeeds: Eight, 5 to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h)\nRange: 100 miles (160 km) on third speed\nBrakes: Hub band and electric\nTires: 34 x 3.5 O.D.\nWeight: 2,100 lb (950 kg) with battery\nWheel Base: 80 in. x 50 in.\nSeat Width: 44 in.\nTop: Full Victoria\nFritchle's initial series of battery and automobile improvements culminated with production of the Victoria Phaeton in 1908, the twentieth anniversary of the electric car in America.[16] His choice of a competitive cross-country endurance run among electric vehicles as a means for promoting the capabilities of his new product was influenced by the positive effect the annual AAA National Reliability Tour, more commonly known as the Glidden Tour, was having on the durability and perceptions of fuel-powered vehicles. Though it had become one of the most prestigious American automobile events, electric vehicles were essentially excluded by the distances of the daily legs which frequently ran well over 100 miles (160 km).\nChallenge and timing[edit]\nBy September 1908 he had issued a general invitation to all manufacturers of electric automobiles to participate in a trip from Denver to New York City with the challenge \"to an endurance run between the above named points at a time in the Fall that will be satisfactory and allow the greatest number of entries possible.\"[7]\nThe relatively short time for responses, lack of electric service on the western end of the proposed route, and poor timing for a trip across northern states cast some doubt as to whether he was actually expecting challengers. The failure of any competitors to accept became a fact leveraged in his advertising.\nLess than sixty days from the September invitation, Fritchle proceeded with the trip on his own. Arrangements for re-charging were made by an associate of his firm, W. P. Pfaff, who usually travelled ahead by rail, though occasionally rode in the car with Fritchle.[5] The starting point was moved to Lincoln, Nebraska due to the unworkable distances between charging facilities that still existed further west. The stock Victoria Phaeton was transported to Lincoln and ready to go by the end of October.\nRoads[edit]\nFritchle departed from Lincoln at 7:30 a.m. on 31 October 1908. Many of the early inter-city roads in the Midwest had been established along existing railroad lines. His route generally followed the Burlington from Lincoln to Omaha and the Rock Island from Omaha to Des Moines.\nLost more than once due to poor signs and roads west of Omaha\nThe Nebraska roads and those in western Iowa were especially brutal. Government road programs had not been implemented yet, so both the roadways and any signage were privately maintained, if maintained at all. It would be another two years before local automobile enthusiasts would adopt the western Iowa segment as the White Pole Road.[17] At the time of Fritchle's trip, the route was poorly marked and the deep mud of the \"blue clay\" roadways difficult to pass. The county and railroad route maps brought for navigation were inadequate. He became lost on several occasions and at times had to resort to following a compass heading or listening for passing trains in order to reconnect with the proper route. The wrong turns, low speeds required for the road conditions, and the need to stop early due to driver exhaustion put him behind schedule. Differences between odometer readings entered in his log and mapped route distances indicated well over 100 miles (160 km) of wrong turns between Lincoln and Cedar Rapids, Iowa; most of which likely occurred west of Des Moines.\nHe drove north out of Des Moines to pick up the Northwestern in Nevada, Iowa and followed it into Chicago. Condition of the roads along the Northwestern were much better and there were several stretches where Fritchle was able to make up time by using high speed. In Chicago he purchased 1908 Glidden Tour (AAA) and White Route (Motor Age) books which were used for the eastern part of the trip.[18]\nSubstantial portions of the route east of Chicago were based upon long established pikes and trails that would later form the Lincoln Highway; the most significant exceptions were a more northern route through Toledo in Ohio, a side trip to his home town of Mount Hope, and more easterly roads out of Pittsburgh. He still managed a few wrong turns due to errors in the guides and in some of the places he chose to deviate from them, though the impact in terms of extra miles was much less significant than it had been in Nebraska and Iowa.\nHe raised the possibility of differences in roadway design considerations between electric and fuel-powered vehicles on the turnpike east of York, Pennsylvania. He noted that the downhill stops required by placement of all sixteen tollgates in the middle of downgrades significantly reduced the effectiveness of his electric's regenerative braking system.\nThe press report that he followed the 1908 Glidden Tour route between Pittsburgh and New York[5] was somewhat misleading. Fritchle appeared to retrace the Glidden route in only a few segments of that stretch, mainly in the area of Bedford, Pennsylvania. Close enough for him to emphasize that his electric had been able to traverse roads through the Alleghenys in November that the fuel-powered \"Gliddenites\" had found difficult to pass in July. He arrived at the Hotel Knickerbocker in Times Square New York at 6:00 p.m. on 28 November 1908.[19]\nRoute and log[edit]\nRoute approximated on current roads by Google Maps\nLincoln to Chicago Chicago to Johnstown Johnstown to New York\nLeg Date Time Location Route Miles Charge\nNotes\n1 31-Oct-1908 7:30 a.m. Lincoln, Nebraska 0 Full Departed from E. E. Mockett Auto Co.\nAshland, Nebraska 28 Partial Charged from Dr. W. G. Meredith's X-Ray dynamo during lunch.\n10:00 p.m. Omaha, Nebraska 60 Full Charged at R. R. Kimball's Garage.\n2 1-Nov-1908 2:30 p.m. Omaha, Nebraska 60 Departure delayed by slow charge.\nWeston, Iowa 73 Scared 4 horse team and two broke wagon tongue and ran off.\n10:00 p.m. Avoca, Iowa 101 Full Charged with barrel water-rheostat from 240 V circuit.\n3 2-Nov-1908 9:00 a.m. Avoca, Iowa 101\n1:30 p.m. Atlantic, Iowa 126 Full Stopped early to rest. Used 110 V DC charging circuit at Atlantic Automobile Company.\n4 3-Nov-1908 7:00 a.m. Atlantic, Iowa 126\n1:00 p.m. Stuart, Iowa 169 Full Used 110 V DC charging circuit from the city electric light plant.\n5 4-Nov-1908 7:15 a.m. Stuart, Iowa 169\n2:15 p.m. Des Moines, Iowa 208 Full Completed 48 miles (77 km) at less than 7 mph. Charged at Iowa Automobile & Supply Co.\n6 5-Nov-1908 9:30 a.m. Des Moines, Iowa 208\nCambridge, Iowa 233\nNevada, Iowa 252 Picked up the Northwestern Road (Transcontinental Automobile Route).\n7:00 p.m. Marshalltown, Iowa 283 Full Completed 72 miles (116 km). Charged using 30 A rectifier.\n7 6-Nov-1908 Marshalltown, Iowa 283\n8:00 p.m. Cedar Rapids, Iowa 355 Full Odometer read 477 miles (768 km) from Lincoln. Charged from 110 V dynamo driven by gas engine.\n8 7-Nov-1908 7:00 a.m. Cedar Rapids, Iowa 355\n5:00 p.m. DeWitt, Iowa 419 Partial Completed 68 miles (109 km) and recharged during supper. Charged from city power plant with small exciter during supper.\nClinton, Iowa 438 Full Completed another 21 miles (34 km) for a total of 89 for the day. Charged at Clinton Auto Supply Co. using rectifier.\n9 8-Nov-1908 11:00 a.m. Clinton, Iowa 438\nDixon, Illinois 487\nFranklin Grove, Illinois 497\n10:00 p.m. DeKalb, Illinois 533 Full Completed 91 miles (146 km)\n10 9-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. DeKalb, Illinois 533\n7:00 p.m. Chicago, Illinois 598 Full Completed 68 miles (109 km)\n10-Nov-1908 Chicago, Illinois 598 Waited for registered letter\n11 11-Nov-1908 4:00 p.m. Chicago, Illinois 598 Purchased 1908 Glidden Route (AAA) and White Route (Motor Age) books\nHobart, Indiana 641 Left front tire punctured by nail on road to Hobart\n11:00 p.m. Valparaiso, Indiana 656 Full Charged from 220 V circuit at Home Herald Co.\n12 12-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Valparaiso, Indiana 656\nLaPorte, Indiana 673\nSouth Bend, Indiana 725\n8:00 p.m. Elkhart, Indiana 747 Full Completed 72 miles (116 km).\n13 13-Nov-1908 8:00 a.m. Elkhart, Indiana 747\nLunch Kendallville, Indiana 797 Partial Partial charge at Kendallville Power Plant through exciter dynamo during lunch due to heavy sand roadways.\nBryan, Ohio 836 Full\n14 14-Nov-1908 Bryan, Ohio 836\nWauseon, Ohio 865\nSwanton, Ohio 879\n3:00 p.m. Toledo, Ohio 900 Full Completed 66 miles (106 km). Charge at Kirk Brothers Garage.\n15 15-Nov-1908 Toledo, Ohio 900\nNorwalk, Ohio 970 Partial Two hour charge.\nAshland, Ohio 1001 Left Toledo-Cleveland Route, lost without map.\nWooster, Ohio 1024\n16 16-Nov-1908 10:00 a.m. Wooster, Ohio 1024\nMount Hope, Ohio 1045 Visited relatives in hometown.\nMassillon, Ohio 1069 Full Charged at Massillon Power Plant.\n17 17-Nov-1908 Massillon, Ohio 1069\nCanton, Ohio 1082\nLisbon, Ohio 1119 Partial Only partial charge available. Dark when left.\nEast Palestine, Ohio 1133 Partial Partial charge from a small exciter dynamo.\n18 18-Nov-1908 East Palestine, Ohio 1133\nSewickley, Pennsylvania 1166 Bought Weed non-skid tire chains for mud.\nPittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180 Full Odometer read 1,332-mile (2,144 km) from Lincoln.\n19-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180\n20-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180\n19 21-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180\nWilkinsburg, Pennsylvania 1189\nExport, Pennsylvania 1204 Partial Received free charge for fixing a nickelodeon power plant.\n4:00 p.m. Blairsville, Pennsylvania 1225 Full\n20 22-Nov-1908 Blairsville, Pennsylvania 1225\n2:00 p.m. Johnstown, Pennsylvania 1251 Full Charged at Johnstown Automobile Co.\n21 23-Nov-1908 Johnstown, Pennsylvania 1251\nSpring Meadow, Pennsylvania 1278 92.7 miles (149.2 km) from Pittsburgh, Glidden Guide gave wrong turn: 4 extra miles.\nFishertown, Pennsylvania 1280\nBedford, Pennsylvania 1290 Partial Partial charge at electric plant due to upcoming hills.\nBedford Springs, Pennsylvania 1292\nEverett, Pennsylvania 1301 Full\n22 24-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Everett, Pennsylvania 1301\nBreezewood, Pennsylvania 1309\nMcConnellsburg, Pennsylvania 1328\n10:00 p.m. Mercersburg, Pennsylvania 1338\n23 25-Nov-1908 12:00 noon Mercersburg, Pennsylvania 1338 Full\nChambersburg, Pennsylvania 1354\n3:00 p.m. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 1378 Full Visited Gettysburg battlefield.\n24 26-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 1378 Thanksgiving Day.\nYork, Pennsylvania 1407 Full Stopped by police for no state driver's license. Charged at Keystone Garage.\n25 27-Nov-1908 York, Pennsylvania 1407\nColumbia, Pennsylvania 1422 Joined White Route No. 7 with 16 tolls.\nLancaster, Pennsylvania 1434\nCoatesville, Pennsylvania 1462\nMalvern, Pennsylvania 1482\nOverbrook, Pennsylvania 1498\nPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania 1507 Full Replaced camel hair brake linings worn out through Allegheny Mountains and charged at Quaker City Garage.\n26 28-Nov-1908 9:00 a.m. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1507\nCamden, New Jersey 1510 Joined White Route No. 5.\nBurlington, New Jersey 1529\nNewark, New Jersey 1593\nJersey City, New Jersey 1598 Crossed Hudson River on the Pennsylvania Railroad Ferry to 23rd Street.\n6:00 p.m. New York City 1607 Ended at Hotel Knickerbocker in Times Square. 200 miles (320 km) from York on two charges, odometer read 1,800 miles (2,900 km) from Lincoln, 75 lb (34 kg) of mud stuck to car.\nTable notes: Italics indicate interpolated values where entries were omitted in the condensed journal\nHighlights[edit]\nFritchle drove the eighteen hundred miles between Lincoln and New York in twenty-nine days averaging close to ninety miles per battery charge across extremes in weather, terrain, and road conditions. The time included about twenty-one days of driving and eight for rest, sightseeing, and visits. Fritchle recorded it as a 29-day trip beginning on 31 October in his journal, but did not seem to object when the newspapers reported it a day shorter beginning on 1 November.\nFritchle Electric towing an Olds near York, Pennsylvania\nRequired repairs and maintenance were trivial. They included one flat tire on the road out of Chicago, a 150 A fuse that was blown throwing the car into gear from a dead stop on a steep mountain incline, and a new set of camel hair brake linings to replace the ones worn out in the Alleghenys. The brake repairs could have been avoided by installing asbestos linings prior to leaving Denver, but the decision was made to keep the vehicle completely stock.[18]\nThe Victoria Phaeton had to be towed once in Iowa by a gasoline-powered automobile when an inaccurate distance estimate led to the batteries being depleted two miles (3.2 km) short of the charging station. Fritchle was later able to even the record by towing a disabled Oldsmobile ten miles (16 km) to service near York, Pennsylvania.[5]\nA wide variety of alternating and direct current power sources were used for recharging. These ranged from a dynamo borrowed from a physician's X-ray machine to a direct connection at a community power plant. Most of the garages he stopped at could safely recharge his vehicle, but in other situations he was often left to figure it out on his own. Fritchle acknowledged that touring in an electric car was only feasible for an \"expert electrician\" due to the complications of safely recharging from the variety of power sources and connections that existed at that time. He was not trying to portray electric vehicles as practical for cross-country travel, but rather demonstrate that his electric vehicles were as robust as the best of the fuel-powered automobiles.[5]\nFritchle drove the Victoria Phaeton from New York to Washington, D.C. with plans to continue to Chicago in order to attend an auto show. He and the automobile later returned to Denver by rail.\nAfter The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric[edit]\nAs robust as the Fritchle electric vehicles were for their time, initial growth of the electric vehicle segment peaked in 1912[20] and became a declining niche unable to compete on price, range, or servicing with the substantially higher volume gasoline powered alternatives. A Fritchle hybrid gas-electric model utilizing a four-cylinder air-cooled engine was developed in 1916, but failed to sustain the automobile business.[4] Production ceased sometime after 1917, though the last Fritchle Electric may have been sold as late as 1922.\nThe automobile business was followed by the Fritchle Electric Company. This firm developed and sold wind power generation systems into the late 1920s that were based upon the windpumps common on farms and ranches throughout much of North America.[14] He later worked for the Buick Motor Company and remained active in the radio and electric power industries until his retirement in 1941.[21]\nPatents and papers[edit]\nProcess of Producing Active Material and Electrodes for Storage Batteries and Products Thereof. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. 3 September 1903. US 738313.\nConnector for Electrochemical Apparatus. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. 23 August 1904. US 768175.\nNotes[edit]\n^ a b Fritichle 1903\n^ a b c d Stone 1918: 428\n^ a b c Brady 1912: 98\n^ a b Beecroft 1916: 156\n^ a b c d e f NYT 1908-11-30: 7\n^ Artman 1909: 140\n^ a b Fritchle 1953: 30\n^ van Sicklen 1918\n^ Dunham 1917: 226\n^ Hayward 1915: 75\n^ Stone 1918: 30\n^ Hayward 1915: 158\n^ Beecroft 1913: 20\n^ a b Stone 1918: 430\n^ Beecroft 1912\n^ Pender 1922: 54\n^ White Pole Rd 2009\n^ a b Fritchle 1953: 30-32, 52\n^ Fritchle 1953: 53\n^ DOE 2005\n^ Sulzberger 2006\nReferences[edit]\nArtman (ed.), James (1 January 1909). \"Trade News Items\". Automobile Trade Journal. Philadelphia: Chilton Printing Co. 13 (7): 140–146. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)\nBeecroft (ed.), David (1 August 1912). \"Fritchle Plant for Bridgeport\". The Automobile. New York: The Class Journal Co. 27 (5): 255. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)\nBeecroft (ed.), David (2 January 1913). \"Electric Vehicles for 1913\". The Automobile. New York: The Class Journal Co. 28 (1): 10–23. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)\nBeecroft (ed.), David (20 January 1916). \"Fritchle Preparing Gas-Electric Model\". The Automobile. 34. New York: The Class Journal Co. p. 156. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)\nBrady (pres.), Anthony N. (June 1912). \"The Fritchle Car\". The Edison Monthly. New York: The New York Edison Co. 5 (1): 98–99.\nDunham (pres.), George W. (April 1917). \"Applications Approved May 14, 1917\". SAE Bulletin. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers. 11 (1): 226–230.\nFritchle, Oliver P. (3 September 1903). Process of Producing Active Material and Electrodes for Storage Batteries and Products Thereof. US 738313. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. US 738313.\nFritchle, Oliver P. (December 1953) [1909]. \"Electric Endurance: Condensed from an original catalog\". Auto Age. 1. pp. 30–32, 52–53.\n\"From Nebraska in Electric Auto\" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 November 1908. p. 7. Retrieved 10 February 2009.\nHayward, Charles B. (1915). \"Electric Automobiles\". Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering. 3. Chicago: American Technical Society. pp. 1–161.\nPender (ed.), Harold; William A. Del Mar (1922). \"Automobiles, Electric\". Handbook for Electrical Engineers (2 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 54–67. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)\nStone, Wilbur F. (1918). \"Oliver Parker Fritchle\". History of Colorado. 2. Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co. pp. 428–430.\nSulzberger, Carl (November 2006). \"One Hundred Miles on One Charge: The remarkable Fritchle electric car\". Power Engineering Society: History. New York: IEEE. Retrieved 15 January 2009.\n\"The White Pole Road - History\". White Pole Road Development Corporation. 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2009-02-10.\nU.S. Department of Energy (7 November 2005). \"History of Electric Vehicles\". Vehicle Technologies Program. Retrieved 19 January 2009.\nvan Sicklen (mgr.), N. H. (16 February 1905). \"The 1905 Hammer (advert)\". Motor Age. Chicago: The Trade Press Co. 7 (7): 38.\nExternal links[edit]\n\"Album with photo of Fritchle Wind-Electric Light windmill\". T. Lindsay Baker.\n\"Map of Great Rock Island Route\". Rumsey Map Collection. ... the roads west of Des Moines along the Rock Island (O. P. Fritchle)\n\"Approximate route of 1908 Glidden Tour mapped on current roads\". Google Maps.\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Parker_Fritchle&oldid=999672571\"\nCategories:\n1874 births\n1951 deaths\nPeople from Holmes County, Ohio\nAmerican automotive pioneers\nAmerican automotive engineers\nAmerican electrical engineers\nAmerican chemists\nOhio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni\nPeople from Denver\nEngineers from Ohio\nHidden categories:\nArticles with hCards\nCS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty\nCS1 maint: extra text: authors list\nCS1: long volume value\nAC with 0 elements\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nAdd links\nThis page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 10:18 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","warc-block-digest":"sha1:LRTEY5OGG2XD6Z2BHA6P2EKQSJYUWO65","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:48062f79-efe0-403a-88b2-683eb44fff2d>","warc-identified-content-language":"eng","content-length":"25292","warc-target-uri":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Parker_Fritchle","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:04:30Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:32b341fc-93f6-4f9c-a71b-97c4fcbd6ed6>","warc-type":"conversion"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"en","prob":0.62834096},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9170491},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.97912246},{"label":"en","prob":0.9546382},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8394829},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.89943826},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8834042},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.97907025},{"label":"en","prob":0.980807},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9824957},{"label":"en","prob":0.9819352},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.972876},{"label":"en","prob":0.9063336},{"label":"en","prob":0.96766794},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.86485934},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90774506},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9791975},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9538088},{"label":"en","prob":0.98794794},{"label":"en","prob":0.9893673},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96084416},{"label":"en","prob":0.9701851},{"label":"en","prob":0.9816365},{"label":"en","prob":0.98994887},{"label":"en","prob":0.9922014},{"label":"en","prob":0.9700667},{"label":"en","prob":0.9876301},{"label":"en","prob":0.9136647},{"label":"en","prob":0.94377357},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82591385},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9401531},{"label":"en","prob":0.8377109},{"label":"en","prob":0.84228593},{"label":"en","prob":0.9748061},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8207913},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90254647},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8810175},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9702844},{"label":"en","prob":0.8820093},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.92942685},{"label":"en","prob":0.803714},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.89819723},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.829103},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8381715},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.92189324},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8434403},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8367551},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9282001},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8758202},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8952878},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8617292},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.84629565},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8668489},{"label":"en","prob":0.8338225},{"label":"en","prob":0.88822603},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9633244},{"label":"en","prob":0.88393116},{"label":"en","prob":0.9785472},{"label":"en","prob":0.96817887},{"label":"en","prob":0.99203},{"label":"en","prob":0.95940924},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9748648},{"label":"en","prob":0.9886259},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82619756},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83221126},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8308435},{"label":"en","prob":0.92953485},{"label":"en","prob":0.9566789},{"label":"en","prob":0.82737076},{"label":"en","prob":0.92977166},{"label":"en","prob":0.8917335},{"label":"en","prob":0.9352185},{"label":"en","prob":0.91910267},{"label":"en","prob":0.97245055},{"label":"en","prob":0.9705836},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.84047496},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8735821},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99779063},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8177732},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8246582},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96736485},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200458},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96017635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200161},{"label":"en","prob":0.98899454},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9282881},{"label":"en","prob":0.9909079},null]}}
{"content":"French Canadians (Acadians · Franco-Albertan · Franco-Columbian · Franco-Manitoban · Franco-Ontarian · Franco-Newfoundlander · Franco-Ténois · Franco-Yukonnais · Québécois) · French · French Americans · Métis\nFransaskois (pronounced [fʁɑ̃.sas.kwa]), (cf. Québécois), Franco-Saskatchewanais (Franco-Saskatchewannais) (pronounced [fʁɑ̃.ko.sas.ka.tʃə.wa.nɛ]) or Franco-Saskatchewanians are French Canadians or Canadian francophones living in the province of Saskatchewan. According to the 2016 Canadian Census, approximately 17,735 residents of the province stated that French was their mother tongue. In the same census, 125,810 Saskatchewanians claimed full or partial French ancestry. There are several Fransaskois communities in Saskatchewan, although the majority of francophones in Saskatchewan reside in the province's three largest cities, Saskatoon, Regina, and Prince Albert.\nThe first francophones to enter the region were French Canadian coureurs de bois employed in the North American fur trade during the 18th century. Francophone settlement into the region first occurred with French Canadian fur traders, along with Roman Catholic missionaries, and the Métis, during the mid 19th century. In 1885, a rebellion that included the French-speaking Métis broke out in the region. In the early 20th century, the provincial government attempted to assimilate the francophone minority into the anglophone majority by curtailing French language education Saskatchewan. The enactment of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982 resulted in several decisions from the Supreme Court of Canada, that reaffirmed the educational, and judicial rights of the francophones in Saskatchewan.\nContents\n1 Demographics\n1.1 Communities\n2 History\n2.1 19th century\n2.2 20th century\n2.3 21st century\n3 Politics\n3.1 Access\n4 Education\n4.1 History\n5 Culture\n6 Media\n6.1 Print\n6.2 Radio\n7 Notable Fransaskois\n8 See also\n9 Footnotes\n10 External links\nDemographics[edit]\nAccording to the 2016 Canadian Census, the number of people that reported French was their mother tongue in Saskatchewan was 17,735, or approximately 1.6 per cent of the population; making it the most common mother tongue in the province after English, Tagalog, German, and Cree (including Cree languages not otherwise specified).[2] The majority of francophone Saskatchewanians are bilingual in English and French, with only 530 Fransaskois reporting they only had proficiency in French.[2] There were 51,355 Saskatchewanians, approximately 4.7 per cent of the population, that reported being bilingual in both English and French; although the following figure includes francophone residents of the province, and Saskatchewanian who speak French as a second language.[2]\nApproximately 56 per cent of Fransaskois were born in Saskatchewan, with 29 per cent of francophones in the province born in another province or territory of Canada.[3] Approximately 16 per cent of all francophones in Saskatchewan were born outside Canada. Among the Fransaskois that were born outside Canada, approximately 57 per cent originated from Africa, 22 per cent from Europe, 18 per cent from Asia, and 6 per cent from all other countries in the Americas.[3]\nIn the 2016 census, 125,810 Saskatchewanians reported having partial or full French ancestry.[1] French is the seventh most commonly reported ethnic group in Saskatchewan, after German, Canadian, English, Scottish, Irish, and Ukrainian.[1]\nCommunities[edit]\nFrancophones in Saskatchewan are concentrated along three main areas of the province, the North and South Saskatchewan River, and in southern Saskatchewan.[3] The majority of Fransaskois reside around the province's largest cities, with three out of four Fransaskois' residing in Saskatoon, Regina, and Prince Albert. However, smaller communities of Fransaskois are also based in Gravelbourg, Albertville, Duck Lake, Zenon Park, Bellegarde, and St. Isidore-de-Bellevue.[3][4]\nHistory[edit]\nLouis de la Corne, c. 1750. In 1755, he was appointed the commandant of New France's poste de l’Ouest, which included present day Saskatchewan\nIn 1752 Louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne was appointed commandant poste de l’Ouest.[5] He embarked on an expedition along the northern coast of Lake Superior, through Fort Paskoya (Le Pas, Manitoba) and into what is today the province of Saskatchewan establishing Fort Saint-Louis, or what became known as Fort-à-la-Corne, near the forks of the Saskatchewan River.[5] The area was the westernmost region of New France.[4]\n19th century[edit]\nFrench Canadian coureurs de bois continued to utilize the territory after the British conquest of New France, in their pursuit of furs to trade with the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and the North-West Company.[6] A number of French fur traders often had local First Nations women as their companions.[7] While the majority of these couples were not formally married, the offspring that they produced often carried the French names of their fathers. Names like Dumont, Cardinal, Breland and Vandal are often associated with the French Métis.[7] Between 1840 to 1880, several Métis communities developed in Batoche, Île-à-la-Crosse, St. Laurent de Grandin, and Willow Bunch.[4]\nIn addition to French Canadian fur traders, and the Métis, Roman Catholic missionaries were among the first francophone settlers into the region, with several French missionaries dispatched to Qu'Appelle River valley (near present day Fort Qu'Appelle in the early 19th century.[4]\nAfter the two fur trading companies were united in 1821,[7] the French Métis settled along the Red River in Rupert's Land, until the Deed of Surrender transferred the territory to Canada in 1870.[7] As a result of the sale, a number of Métis left the Red River to seek out new lands in an attempt to return to their way of life. The vast majority landed on the banks of the Saskatchewan River in the area of Batoche and Duck Lake,[8] although a dispute over land titles resulted in the North-West Rebellion; which saw the Métis eventually defeated at the Battle of Batoche in 1885 when.[8] The rebellion's leader, Louis Riel was later tried in court, the outcome of which became a major point of contention between English and French Canadians.\nLouis Riel standing trial in 1885. The outcome of the trial became a point of contention for French Canadians.\nIn 1892, the Northwest Territories abolished French as an official language.\n20th century[edit]\nAt the end of the nineteenth century the Roman Catholic Church aided the government in bringing new groups of immigrants to the prairies.[9] The resulting immigration saw many arrive from Quebec who began establishing towns, schools, churches and businesses. The Canadian government worked to encourage French immigrants from France and Belgium, achieving some success in 1912 and 1913 as some 3000 French arrived in Canada in those two years.[10]\nAt the turn of the century the French-speaking settlers represented about 2.9% of the population.[11] Five years after the foundation of the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 the French-speaking population represented 5.2%.[11] The population grew from 2,600 to 25,000 in the first ten years of the twentieth century and they would double their population during next two decades.[11]\nThe French Canadians arriving in Saskatchewan were mostly farmers interested in developing the agricultural landscape of the province.[12] Others worked to ensure the survival of the Catholic Church and the French language in the province. The first bishops of the west were French Canadians who believed that the survival of the Church was dependent on the survival of the mother tongue.[13] In February 1912, 450 members of the Francophone community of Saskatchewan met at Duck Lake to form a provincial organization called La Sociéte du Parler Français de la Saskatchewan.[13] Invited delegates included Bishop Mathieu of Regina, Bishop Charlebois of Keewatin and the Attorney General Alphonse Turgeon.[14] Later that year the society would go on to form the Association Franco-Canadienne de la Saskatchewan (renamed the Assemblée communautaire fransaskoise of ACF in 1999) in an effort to protect the rights of Fransaskois.[13]\nThe early 20th century saw efforts to curtail French language education, in an effort to assimilate the francophone minority with the anglophone majority.[4] In 1916 several provincial organizations like the Saskatchewan Grain Growers, the Saskatchewan School Trustees’ Association, the Saskatchewan Association of Rural Municipalities resolved to forbid the use of foreign languages in Saskatchewan's schools.[15] Premier William Martin drafted an amendment to Section 177 of the School Act which limited French instruction to one hour a day.[14] In response to the loss of the right to teach French in a public school in 1918 Franco-Catholic school trustees formed the Association des commissaries d’écoles franco-canadiens (ACEFC).[16] In 1918, Monsignor Mathieu Regina opened College Mathieu in Gravelbourg, a private institution that offered classical education in French.[17] College Mathieu remained the only option for a French education in Saskatchewan for the next 75 years. It remained in operation as Western Canada's only private French language secondary school until 2003, when it was absorbed by the province's public francophone school system and renamed L'école Sécondaire Collège Mathieu.\nIn 1982, Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed minority education rights.[18] The establishment of the Charter led to the Fransaskois community pushing for further linguistic rights through the judiciary. In 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in R v Mercure that the ''North-West Territories Act still applied to its succeeding provinces (Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan), notably Section 110, which affords certain linguistic rights to francophones.[19] However, the court also stated in its decision that said provinces were also permitted to legislate on matters of official languages, resulting in the passage of the provincial Languages Act and the Act Respecting the Use of the English and French Languages in Saskatchewan in 1988.[19] Although both legislation affirmed the right to use French in the judiciary and legislature, it also revoked many of the privileges accorded to francophones under the North-West Territories Act.[19] Another supreme court decision (Mahe decision) in 1990 recognized the Fransaskois’ right to control their children’s education.[18]\n21st century[edit]\nIn 2003, the provincial government introduced its first policy on French-language support for certain provincial services.[20] The year 2012 was proclaimed the Year of the Fransaskois Community in Saskatchewan by Minister Donna Harpauer in recognition of the 100th anniversary of the ACF.[21]\nPolitics[edit]\nThe Francophone Affairs Branch (established as the Office of French Language Coordination) was established in 1990, and serves as the liaison between the provincial government and Fransaskois community.[20] Conversely, Fransaskois interests is represented by the Assemblée communautaire fransaskoise. The ACF originated from the Association Franco-Canadienne de la Saskatchewan, formed in 1912. originated from Association Franco-Canadienne de la Saskatchewan formed in 1912. The organization was renamed as the Association Catholique Franco-Canadienne in 1913, and in 1962 when the association dropped the word \"catholique\" in favour of \"culturelle.\" The organization adopted its current name in 1999, to further reflect the structural makeup of the organization.[22] The ACF's mandate is to represent the Fransaskois community in order to promote services protecting their rights.\nAccess[edit]\nUnder the provincial Languages Act passed in 1988, English serves as the official language of the province. English is the primary language of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan, with legislation passed there permitted to be published in English only. However, the Languages Act does allow legislation to be published bilingually in English and French; and permits its members to address the legislature in the French language. Although the Languages Act permits the use of French in the legislature, it revoked many of the linguistic rights previously guaranteed to Fransaskois under Section 110 of the North-West Territories Act.[19]\nFrench is one of two official languages used in the provincial judiciary.[23] The rights of francophones for the provincial judicial system was outlined in An Act Respecting the Use of the English and French Languages in Saskatchewan, passed in 1988 shortly after the supreme court decision on R v Mercure.[19]\nEducation[edit]\nAerial view of École monseigneur de Laval's elementary school building. The school is one of 12 elementary schools administered by the Conseil des écoles fransaskoises.\nFrench language education rights for minority francophone populations in Canada is guaranteed under Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and is further reinforced by the province's Education Act. The Conseil des écoles fransaskoises is the province's only francophone school division, and encompasses the entire province. The francophone school board operates twelve elementary schools and two secondary schools; with a total enrolment of 1,603 students during the 2015–16 academic year.[3]\nThere are no publicly-funded francophone post-secondary institutions in Saskatchewan. However, the University of Regina operates a bilingual English and French institution, La Cite universitaire francophone. The institution operates as a centre that provides a limited number of academic programs in the French-language, as well as some francophone services for the university.[3][24]\nHistory[edit]\nEducation in the French language occurred in the region as early as the 19th century, although saw efforts to curtail its instruction in the early 20th century. In 1911, the provincial government limited French language education was to Grade 1 of elementary school; before outright banning its instruction in 1931.[4] Elementary school teachers were again permitted to teach the French language after an amendment to the provincial Education Act was enacted in 1968, allowing teachers to teach the language.[3][25] Teachers in secondary school were permitted to teach French in 1971.[4] Provisions made to the provincial Education Act in 1978 allowed for designated schools to use French as their primary language of instruction.[25] Although these schools were open to francophones, they were administered by anglophone school boards, typically as French immersion schools.\nFollowing the enactment of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Fransaskois have pushed for the right to administer their own schools. Decisions passed by the supreme court in 1988 and 1990 asserted the fact that francophones the right to govern their own education.[25] However, a separate public francophone school system was not implemented in the province until 1993.[25] The province established eight public francophone school boards in 1995, all of which were eventually consolidated into the Conseil scolaire fransaskois in 1999.[18]\nCulture[edit]\nFlag of the Fransaskois\nThe Conseil culturel fransaskois was established in 1974 as an organization that assists francophone cultural centres in the province.[4] The organization is responsible for popularizing the term Fransaskois to refer to the French Canadian community in Saskatchewan.[4] Fransaskois celebrate their vibrant culture regularly. Folk arts, visual arts, fine arts and performance arts all feature prominently in their festivals. The Fête fransaskoise festival is an annual francophone arts and culture festival held in June.[3] The festival has been held since 1980, it has been an opportunity for Fransaskois to get together, express themselves and celebrate in French for a weekend and to preserve their roots.\nA French-language professional theatre company, La Troupe du Jour, founded in 1987, operates from a base in Saskatoon.[26] Gravelbourg's Fransaskois community is the subject of a short documentary Les Fransaskois, produced for the documentary series The Grasslands Project.[27]\nThe Fransaskois flag was created in 1979 to represent the community.[4] The flag features a green cross on a field of yellow, with a red fleur-de-lis on the bottom right of the flag. The green represents both the boreal forest and the historic role of the Roman Catholic Church within the community; the yellow representing the Canadian Prairies; and the red fleur-de-lis representing Louis Riel's struggle for francophone and Métis rights.[4]\nMedia[edit]\nPrint[edit]\nIn 1910 a province-wide, French-language weekly \"Le Patriote de l'Ouest\" was established in the town of Duck Lake. In 1941, \"Le Patriote de l'Ouest\" merged with \"La Liberté\" a French-language weekly newspaper based in Saint-Boniface Manitoba, becoming \"La Liberté et le Patriote\". In 1971, \"L'Eau vive\" became the new French-language weekly in Saskatchewan. L'Eau vive, is published in Regina.\nTwo community newspapers, Triangle News in Coronach and the Gravelbourg Tribune in Gravelbourg, publish content in both English and French.\nRadio[edit]\nThe CBC/Radio-Canada building in Regina houses studios for two francophone radio stations, CBKFT-DT, and CBKF-FM\nThe Fransaskois community is served primarily by the radio and television services of Radio-Canada, the country's French language public broadcaster. Radio-Canada launched its French language first television station in Saskatchewan in 1976.[4] Ici Radio-Canada Télé's CBKFT-DT and Ici Radio-Canada Première's CBKF-FM are based in Regina and have rebroadcasters throughout the province, while Regina and Saskatoon receive Ici Musique service from rebroadcasters of CKSB-FM in Winnipeg.\nA privately-owned bilingual community radio station, CKZP-FM, also operates in Zenon Park. In 2003, a privately-owned community station, CFRG-FM, was launched in Gravelbourg by a new community group which has no ownership affiliation with the original CFRG. The original CFRG was one of two privately-owned French language radio stations that operated in Saskatchewan prior to 1973. Programming at CFRG started in June 1952 at CFRG Gravelbourg; whereas the second station, CFNS, started broadcasting in November 1952 in Saskatoon. In 1973, Radio-Canada bought the two stations and has since taken a leading role in broadcasting French-language radio and French-language television across the province, featuring locally produced content in both mediums.[4] The two radio stations became rebroadcasters of CBKF after their acquisition.\nNotable Fransaskois[edit]\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\nFind sources: \"Fransaskois\" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nThe most famous Fransaskoise, Jeanne Sauvé, born in Prud'Homme, served as a Liberal MP, Cabinet minister, Speaker of the House of Commons and ultimately Governor General of Canada. In the arts, notable Fransaskois include folk music bands La Raquette à Claquettes and Hart-Rouge, and children's entertainer Carmen Campagne (from the town of Willow Bunch). New upcoming artists such as Alexis Normand, Véronique Poulin and Shawn Jobin are becoming[when?] staples on the Fransaskois music scene, joining more established artists such as Annette Campagne, Chritianne Blondeau and Michel Lalonde. In sports, the most notable Fransaskois is NHL games-played record holder, Patrick Marleau, and Colorado Avalanche forward Blake Comeau of Meadow Lake. Comeau was a member of the 2004 Memorial Cup champion Kelowna Rockets and of two gold-medal-winning World Junior Hockey championship teams.\nSee also[edit]\nCanada portal\nFrench Canadians\nAcadians, French-speaking Quebecer, Franco-Albertan, Franco-Columbian, Franco-Manitoban, Franco-Newfoundlander, Franco-Ontarian, Franco-Ténois, Franco-Yukonnais\nSouthbranch Settlement\nFootnotes[edit]\n^ a b c \"Census Profile, 2016 - Saskatchewan - Canada\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Statistics Canada. 9 August 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2020.\n^ a b c d \"Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census - Saskatchewan\". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Statistics Canada. 10 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2020.\n^ a b c d e f g h i \"Infographic: The French Presence in Saskatchewan\". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. Government of Canada. 13 September 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2020.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Dupuis, Serge (6 October 2019). \"Francophones of Saskatchewan (Fransaskois)\". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 30 April 2020.\n^ a b Russ, C. J. (1974). \"La Corne, Louis de, Chevalier de La Corne\". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.\n^ Lapointe, Richard; Tessier, Lucille (1986). The Francophones of Saskatchewan: A History. Translated by Tessier, Lucille. Regina: Campion College, University of Regina. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-9692-6582-5.\n^ a b c d Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 3.\n^ a b Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 5.\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 76.\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 72.\n^ a b c Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 101.\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 127.\n^ a b c Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 190.\n^ a b Lapointe & Tessier (1986).\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 201.\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 200.\n^ Lapointe & Tessier (1986), p. 254.\n^ a b c \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 23 March 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2012. CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)\n^ a b c d e \"In the Mercure and Paquette cases, the Supreme Court of Canada confirms bilingualism in Saskatchewan and Alberta\". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. Government of Canada. 20 December 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2020.\n^ a b \"Francophone Affairs Branch\". www.saskatchewan.ca. Government of Saskatchewan. 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.\n^ \"ACF - Assemblée communautaire fransaskoise\".\n^ http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/association_culturelle_franco-canadienne.html\n^ \"Saskatchewan adopts its Act Respecting the Use of the English and French Languages in Saskatchewan\". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. Government of Canada. 20 December 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2020.\n^ \"Study in French\". lacite.uregina.ca. University of Regina. 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.\n^ a b c d \"Bilingualism\". The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. 2006. Retrieved 5 May 2020.\n^ \"La Troupe du Jour\". fransaskois.net. Le Portail fransaskois. Retrieved 28 September 2017.\n^ Vézina, Michel (25 May 2016). \"Projection du \"Projet Grasslands\" à Gravelbourg\". L'Eau vive (in French). Retrieved 30 September 2016.\nExternal links[edit]\nAssemblée communautaire fransaskoise\nPortail fransaskois\ncorridor canada\nv\nt\ne\nFrench diaspora\nAfrica\nAlgeria\nAngola\nBenin\nFrench Dahomey\nBurkina Faso\nFrench Upper Volta\nCameroon\nFrench Cameroon\nCentral African Republic\nUbangi-Shari\nChad\nFrench Chad\nComoros\nFrench Comoros\nRepublic of the Congo\nBrazzaville\nDjibouti\nFrench Somaliland\nGabon\nFrench Gabon\nThe Gambia\nJames Island\nAlbreda\nGhana (White Ghanaian)\nGuinea\nFrench Guinea\nCôte d'Ivoire\nMadagascar\nMali\nFrench Sudan\nMauritius\nMorocco\nNamibia (Afrikaners)\nNiger\nColony of Niger\nRéunion1\nSenegal\nSeychelles\nSomalia\nSouth Africa (Afrikaners)\nTogo\nFrench Togoland\nTunisia\nAsia\nHong Kong\nIndia\nJapan\nKorea\nPakistan\nMiddle East\nIsrael\nLebanon\nTurkey\nUnited Arab Emirates\nEurope\nHungary\nNetherlands (Huguenots)\nUnited Kingdom (Huguenots)\nNorth America\nCanada\nAcadians\nBrayon\nBasque\nFranco-Albertans\nFranco-Columbian\nFranco-Manitoban\nFranco-Nunavois\nFranco-Ontarian\nFranco-Ténois\nFranco-Newfoundlander\nFranco-Yukonnais\nFransaskois\nQuébécois\nCuba\nFrench Antilles1\nGuatemala\nHaiti\nJamaica\nMexico\nPuerto Rico\nSaint Kitts and Nevis\nUnited States\nCajuns\nFrench Canadians\nHuguenots\nBreton\nCorsican\nBasque\nOceania\nAustralia\nNew Caledonia\nNew Zealand\nSouth America\nArgentina\nBrazil\nChile\nColombia\nPeru\nUruguay\nSee also\nBasques\nBretons\nWalloons\nCorsican immigration to Puerto Rico\n1Overseas parts of France proper\nMigration of minorities in France (i.e. Basques) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fransaskois&oldid=1040073895\"\nCategories:\nCulture of Saskatchewan\nFransaskois people\nFrench-Canadian people\nEthnic groups in Saskatchewan\nEthnic groups in Canada\nHidden categories:\nCS1: long volume value\nCS1 maint: archived copy as title\nCS1 French-language sources (fr)\nUse dmy dates from September 2017\n\"Related ethnic groups\" needing confirmation\nArticles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters\nArticles needing additional references from May 2020\nAll articles needing additional references\nAll articles with vague or ambiguous time\nVague or ambiguous time from June 2018\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nAsturianu\nCatalà\nDeutsch\nEspañol\nFrançais\nمصرى\nРусский\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 22 August 2021, at 14:05 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","warc_headers":{"warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:0d95649c-a2a5-4b0a-8cc5-a1e747854cf1>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:7289237b-3e2e-4d32-a6be-bae409cff45c>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:01:39Z","content-type":"text/plain","warc-identified-content-language":"eng","content-length":"26067","warc-block-digest":"sha1:JYVTKHZGDDN4DPTME4Q6OHI2KYIBGVY6","warc-target-uri":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransaskois","warc-type":"conversion"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"en","prob":0.7596925},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,{"label":"en","prob":0.91353387},{"label":"en","prob":0.95732355},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9768624},{"label":"en","prob":0.9092337},{"label":"en","prob":0.89109725},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.88691604},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99426496},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8567815},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9770637},{"label":"en","prob":0.96479106},{"label":"en","prob":0.9388685},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.92658937},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9309972},{"label":"en","prob":0.9342676},{"label":"en","prob":0.8937647},{"label":"en","prob":0.960353},{"label":"en","prob":0.96673316},{"label":"en","prob":0.9752567},{"label":"en","prob":0.9692489},{"label":"en","prob":0.9380319},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9710898},{"label":"en","prob":0.95001924},{"label":"en","prob":0.9288831},{"label":"en","prob":0.918424},{"label":"en","prob":0.9406547},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.932727},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9150178},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9497995},{"label":"en","prob":0.91971695},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83512634},{"label":"en","prob":0.9418224},{"label":"en","prob":0.9397537},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9901368},{"label":"en","prob":0.9532475},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96019846},{"label":"en","prob":0.8562041},{"label":"en","prob":0.8972784},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9089433},{"label":"en","prob":0.9302514},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9472478},{"label":"en","prob":0.9498572},{"label":"en","prob":0.98348504},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9287003},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90183514},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.93493044},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8623567},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9142207},{"label":"en","prob":0.83167666},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9142562},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"it","prob":0.8008495},{"label":"en","prob":0.89709},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82278967},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.86868185},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.93484145},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8273921},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.80132407},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82676},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8607029},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8962899},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.88822645},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8930016},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8211945},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90409017},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.86881113},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.81218034},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.81143296},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.93203276},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.88533676},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.93493044},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.91985685},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9176445},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9981378},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8656912},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9414775},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8349268},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8747434},{"label":"en","prob":0.89075965},{"label":"en","prob":0.9165383},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9172455},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9509045},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.91967},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9699475},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8735821},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99779063},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8177732},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8246582},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96736485},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200458},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96017635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200161},{"label":"en","prob":0.98899454},null,null,null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8222208},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9671961},{"label":"en","prob":0.98366356},null]}}
{"content":"This article is about the men's team. For the women's team, see India women's national football team.\nIndia\nNickname(s)\nThe Blue Tigers\nAssociation\nAll India Football Federation\nConfederation\nAFC (Asia)\nSub-confederation\nSAFF (South Asia)\nHead coach\nIgor Štimac[1]\nCaptain\nSunil Chhetri\nMost caps\nSunil Chhetri (120)[2]\nTop scorer\nSunil Chhetri (75)[2]\nHome stadium\nVarious\nFIFA code\nIND\nFirst colours\nSecond colours\nFIFA ranking\nCurrent\n107 2 (16 September 2021)[3]\nHighest\n94[4] (February 1996)\nLowest\n173[5] (March 2015)\nFirst international\nPre-independence:\nAustralia 5–3 India [6]\n(Sydney, Australia; 3 September 1938)\nPost-independence:\nIndia 1–2 France [7]\n(London, England; 31 July 1948)\nBiggest win\nAustralia 1–7 India\n(Sydney, Australia; 12 December 1956)[8]\nIndia 6–0 Cambodia\n(New Delhi, India; 17 August 2007)[9]\nBiggest defeat\nSoviet Union 11–1 India\n(Moscow, Soviet Union; 16 September 1955)[10]\nSummer Olympics\nAppearances\n4 (first in 1948)\nBest result\nFourth Place (1956)\nAsian Cup\nAppearances\n4 (first in 1964)\nBest result\nRunners-up (1964)\nSAFF Championship\nAppearances\n13 (first in 1993)\nBest result\nChampions (1993, 1997, 1999, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2015)\nAFC Challenge Cup\nAppearances\n4 (first in 2006)\nBest result\nChampions (2008)\nMedal record\nMen's football\nAFC Asian Cup\n1964 Israel Team\nAsian Games\n1951 New Delhi Team\n1962 Jakarta Team\n1970 Bankok Team\nSAFF Championship\n1993 Pakistan\n1997 Nepal\n1999 India\n2005 Pakistan\n2009 Bangladesh\n2011 India\n2015 India\n1995 Sri Lanka\n2008 Maldives & Sri Lanka\n2013 Nepal\n2018 Bangladesh\n2003 Bangladesh\nAFC Challenge Cup\n2008 India Team\nThe India national football team represents India in international football and is controlled by the All India Football Federation (AIFF). The squad is under the global jurisdiction of FIFA and governed in Asia by the AFC. The AIFF is one of the founding members of the South Asian Football Federation (SAFF) and the squad is also a part of the regional federation.\nThe team, which was once considered one of the best teams in Asia, had its golden era during the 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, India won gold at the 1951 and 1962 Asian Games, while finishing fourth at the 1956 Summer Olympics. Thus, India became the first Asian nation to reach the semi-final of a FIFA organized major tournament. India has never participated in the FIFA World Cup, although they did qualify by default for the 1950 World Cup after all other nations in their qualification group withdrew. However, India withdrew prior to the beginning of the tournament. The team has also appeared four times in the AFC Asian Cup, Asia's top football championship and finished as runners-up in 1964.\nIndia also participates in the SAFF Championship, the top regional football competition in South Asia. They have won the tournament seven times since it began in 1993 and by doing so became the most successful team in the region. In the 21st century, besides the SAFF Championship triumphs, under the guidance of Bob Houghton, India also won the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup. The Challenge Cup victory allowed India to once again qualify for the Asian Cup after 27 years.\nContents\n1 History\n1.1 Early years (1930s–1940s)\n1.2 Golden years (1950s–1960s)\n1.3 Decline (1970s–2000)\n1.4 Resurgence (2001–2011)\n1.5 2011–present\n2 Team image\n2.1 Nicknames\n2.2 Kit and colours\n2.3 Home stadiums\n2.4 Supporters\n2.5 Media coverage\n3 Results and fixtures\n3.1 Matches\n3.1.1 2021\n4 Coaching staff\n4.1 Current personnel\n4.2 Past head coaches\n5 Players\n5.1 Current squad\n5.2 Recent callups\n5.3 Notable players\n6 Competitive record\n6.1 FIFA World Cup\n6.2 AFC Asian Cup\n6.3 Summer Olympics\n6.4 Asian Games\n6.5 SAFF Championship\n6.6 AFC Challenge Cup\n7 See also\n8 References\n9 External links\nHistory\nMain article: History of the India national football team\nEarly years (1930s–1940s)\nIndian (in white) and all European (in black) team together before 1 July 1938 Calcutta match.\nThe first known official international tour of the Indian team which at that time consisted of both Indian and British players was in 1924, when it was led by Indian footballer Gostha Paul.[13]\nFootball teams consisting of entirely Indian players started to tour Australia, Japan, Indonesia, and Thailand during the late 1930s. The first international match India played before independence is yet to be verified, but the very trace of it can be found in the match India played overseas against Ceylon in 1933. It was India's second international tour, where Gostha Paul led his side to victory by 1–0 score.[13][14][15] On 4 July 1936 India played against visiting Chinese team, which was held at Calcutta. The match was a draw of 1–1.[16][13]\nIndia side that participated in the 1948 Summer Olympics match against France\nAfter the success of several Indian football clubs abroad, the All India Football Federation (AIFF) was formed in 1937. In the same year, India made a long official tour on invitation by Australian Football Association, from August to October where they played 17 matches against many states, districts, club teams and 5 friendly matches against the Australian national side too.[17] After playing some matches against state and district teams, on 3 September at Sydney, India played the first friendly match against Australia and got defeated by 5–3 and the match is considered as India's first FIFA-recognised match.[17] Second match was at Brisbane, where the Indians fought back for a draw of 4–4. In the third match at Newcastle, on 17 September India registered their first win by a margin of 4–1. But the Australians defeated India in the next two matches held at Sydney and Melbourne with a score line of 5–4 and 3–1 respectively. At the Sydney match on 24 September, Indian striker Lumsden scored the first hat-trick for India against the Australian side which includes a penalty kick.[18]\nThe national team played their first match as an independent nation in 1948 in the first round of the 1948 Summer Olympics against France. Using mainly barefooted players, India were defeated 2–1 in London.[19]\nGolden years (1950s–1960s)\nIn 1950, India managed to qualify for the 1950 FIFA World Cup, which was scheduled to take place in Brazil, after the withdrawal of all opponents in their group during the qualifying round. But later, India as well withdrew from the tournament due to travel costs, lack of practice time, and valuing the Olympics more than the World Cup.[20]\nIndian team at a melee against Australia at the 1956 Olympics.\nDespite the reason given out by the AIFF, many historians and pundits believe India withdrew from the World Cup due to FIFA imposing a rule banning players from playing barefoot.FIFA offered to pay the travel expenses of the Indian team hence India withdrawing due to travel costs is incorrect.[21][22][23][24] However, according to the then captain of India, Sailen Manna, the story of the team not being allowed to play due to wanting to play barefoot was not true[25] and was just an excuse to cover up the real reasons the AIFF decided not to travel to Brazil.[20] Since then, India has not come close to qualifying for another World Cup.[26]\nDespite not participating in the World Cup in 1950, the following years until 1964 are usually considered to be the \"golden era\" of Indian football. India, coached by Hyderabad City Police head coach Syed Abdul Rahim, became one of the best teams in Asia.[27] In March 1951, Rahim led India to their first ever triumph during the 1951 Asian Games. Hosted in India, the team defeated Iran 1–0 in the gold medal match to gain their first trophy.[28] Sahu Mewalal scored the winning goal for India in that match.[28] The next year India went back to the Olympics but were once again defeated in the first round, this time by Yugoslavia and by a heavy score of 10–1.[29] Upon returning to India, the AIFF made it mandatory for footballers to wear boots.[19] After taking the defeat in Finland, India participated in various minor tournaments, such as the Colombo Cup, which they won four times from 1952 to 1955.[30]\nIn 1954, India returned to the Asian Games as defending champions in Manila. Despite their achievement three years prior, India was unable to go past the group stage as the team finished second in Group C during the tournament, two points behind Indonesia.[31] Two years later, during the 1956 Summer Olympics, India went on to achieve the team's greatest result in a competitive tournament. The team finished in fourth place during the Summer Olympics football tournament, losing the bronze-medal match to Bulgaria 3–0.[32] The tournament is also known for Neville D'Souza's hat-trick against Australia in the quarterfinals. D'Souza's hat-trick was the first scored by an Asian in Olympic history.[32]\nAfter their good performance during the Summer Olympics, India participated in the 1958 Asian Games in Tokyo. The team once again finished fourth, losing the bronze-medal match to Indonesia 4–1.[33] The next year the team traveled to Malaysia where they took part in the Merdeka Cup and finished as the tournament runners-up.[34]\nIndian team at the 1960 Olympics\nIndia began the 1960s with the 1960 AFC Asian Cup qualifiers. Despite the qualifiers for the West Zone being held in Kochi, India finished last in their qualification group and thus missed out the tournament.[35] Despite the set-back, India went on to win the gold medal during the Asian Games for the second time in 1962. The team defeated South Korea 2–1 to win their second major championship.[36]\nTwo years later, following their Asian Games triumph, India participated in the 1964 AFC Asian Cup after all the other teams in their qualification group withdrew. Despite their automatic entry into the continental tournament, India managed to finish as the runners-up during the tournament, losing out to the hosts, Israel, by two points. This remains India's best performance in the AFC Asian Cup.[37]\nDecline (1970s–2000)\nIndia returned to the Asian Games in 1966. Despite their performance two years prior during the AFC Asian Cup, India could not go beyond the group stage as the team finished third, behind Japan and Iran.[38] Four years later, during the 1970 Asian Games, India came back and took third place during the tournament. The team defeated Japan 1–0 during the bronze-medal match.[39]\nIn 1974, India's performance in the Asian Games once again sharply declined as they finished the 1974 edition in last place in their group, losing all three matches, scoring two, and conceding 14 goals in the first round.[40] India then showed steady improvement during the 1978 tournament, finishing second in their group of three. The team were then knocked-out in the next round, finishing last in their group with three defeats from three matches.[41] The 1982 tournament proved to be better for India as the side managed to qualify for the quarter-finals before losing to Saudi Arabia 1–0.[42]\nIn 1984, India managed to qualify for the AFC Asian Cup for the first time since their second place triumph in 1964. During the 1984 tournament, India finished in last place in their five team group in the first round.[43] India's only non-defeat during the tournament came against Iran, a 0–0 draw.[43]\nDespite India's decline from a major football power in Asia, the team still managed to assert its dominance as the top team in South Asia. India managed to win the football competition of the South Asian Games in 1985 and then again won the gold medal in 1987.[44] The team then began the 1990s by winning the inaugural SAFF Championship in 1993.[45] The team ended the 20th century by winning the SAFF Championship again in 1997 and 1999.[45]\nResurgence (2001–2011)\nIndia playing against Syria at the 2007 Nehru Cup\nIndia's first competitive matches of the 21st century were the 2002 FIFA World Cup first round qualifiers. India took a very bright start, defeating the United Arab Emirates 1–0, drawing Yemen 1–1, as well as two victories over Brunei, including a 5–0 victory in Bangalore. However, they finished a point away from qualification for the next round.[46] In 2003, India took part in the 2003 SAFF Championship. The team qualified for the semi-finals but fell to Bangladesh 2–1.[47]\nLater in 2003, India participated in the Afro-Asian Games being held in Hyderabad. Under the coaching of Stephen Constantine, India managed to make it to the final of the tournament after defeating Zimbabwe, a team ranked 85 places above India in the FIFA rankings at the time, 5–3.[48] Despite the major victory, during the gold-medal match India were defeated 1–0 by Uzbekistan.[49] Because of this achievement, Constantine was voted as the Asian Football Confederation's Manager of the Month for October 2003. The tournament result also gave India more recognition around the country and around the world.[48]\nConstantine was replaced by Syed Nayeemuddin in 2005 but the Indian head coach only lasted for a little over a year as India suffered many heavy defeats during the 2007 AFC Asian Cup qualifiers.[50] During this time India were defeated 6–0 by Japan, 3–0 by Saudi Arabia and Yemen respectively at home, and 7–1 away in Jeddah.[51] Former Malmö and China coach Bob Houghton was brought in as head coach in May 2006.[52]\nIndian team celebrating their 2008 AFC Challenge Cup victory\nUnder Houghton, India witnessed massive improvement in their football standing. In August 2007, Houghton won the country the restarted Nehru Cup after India defeated Syria 1–0 in the final.[53] Pappachen Pradeep scored the winning goal for India that match. The next year, Houghton led India during the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup, which was hosted in Hyderabad and Delhi. During the tournament, India breezed through the group stage before defeating Myanmar in the semi-finals. In the final against Tajikistan, India, through a Sunil Chhetri hat-trick, won the match 4–1. The victory not only earned India the championship but it also allowed India to qualify for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup, the nation's first Asian Cup appearance in 27 years.[54] In order to prepare for the Asian Cup, Houghton had the team stay together as a squad for eight months from June 2010 till the start of the tournament, meaning the players would not play for their clubs.[55]\nIndia were drawn into Group C for the Asian Cup with Australia, South Korea, and Bahrain.[56] Even though they stayed together as a team for eight months, India lost all three of their matches during the Asian Cup, including a 4–0 defeat to Australia.[57] Despite the results, India were praised by fans and pundits for their valiant efforts during the tournament.[57]\n2011–present\nAfter participating the 2011 AFC Asian Cup, India's campaign to qualify for the 2015 Asian Cup began in February 2011 with the AFC Challenge Cup qualifiers. Bob Houghton decided to change the makeup of the India squad, replacing many of the older players from the Asian Cup with some young players from the AIFF development side in the I-League, Indian Arrows.[58] Even with a young side, India managed to qualify for the AFC Challenge Cup.[59] Despite qualifying for the AFC Challenge Cup, the AIFF decided to terminate the contract of Bob Houghton as he was charged with racial abuse towards referee[60][61] which ultimately resulted him resigning as the head coach of India.[62][63]\nAfter having Dempo coach Armando Colaco as interim head coach, the AIFF signed Savio Medeira as head coach in October 2011.[64] Medeira led India to another SAFF Championship victory, but also to their worst performance in the AFC Challenge Cup in March 2012. The team lost all three of their group matches, unable to score a single goal during the tournament.[65] After the tournament, Medeira was replaced as head coach by Dutchman, Wim Koevermans.[66] Koevermans' first job as head coach was the 2012 Nehru Cup. India won their third successive Nehru Cup, defeating Cameroon on penalties.[67][68]\nIn March 2013, India failed to qualify for the 2014 AFC Challenge Cup and thus also failed to qualify for the 2015 AFC Asian Cup.[69] The team also failed to retain the SAFF Championship, losing 2–0 to Afghanistan in the 2013 final.[70] After more bad results in friendlies, Koevermans resigned as head coach in October 2014.[71]\nBy March 2015, after not playing any matches, India reached their lowest FIFA ranking position of 173.[72] A couple months prior, Stephen Constantine was re-hired as the head coach after first leading India more than a decade before.[73] Constantine's first major assignment back as the India head coach were the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. After making it through the first round of qualifiers, India crashed out during the second round, losing seven of their eight matches and thus, once again, failed to qualify for the World Cup.[74]\nIndia playing XI against Thailand at 2019 AFC Asian Cup\nDespite failure to qualify for the World Cup, India managed to reach the third round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualifiers after defeating Laos in the play-off round on aggregate 7–1.[75] On 11 October 2017, India secured qualification for the 2019 AFC Asian Cup after a 4–1 victory over Macau.[76]\nThough defeated at 2018 SAFF Championship final by 1–2 to Maldives in September 2018,[77] India regained the momentum with some friendlies against China, Jordan and Oman as they began the 2019 AFC Asian Cup with a 4–1 victory against Thailand; this was their biggest ever win at the Asia Cup, and their first in 55 years.[78][79] Nevertheless, they lost both of their next two group matches against UAE and Bahrain by 0−2 and 0−1 respectively[80][81] and finished at the bottom of the group, thus failed to move to knock out stage.[82] Stephen Constantine immediately resigned from his position as head coach following the failure to progress further in the tournament.[83]\nOn 15 May 2019, the AIFF announced former Croatian player and coach Igor Štimac as the team's head coach after the departure of Stephen Constantine.[84] His first major assignment with India was 2022 World Cup qualification, where it began with a 1–2 home loss to Oman.[85] But in the second match they earned a respectable point after managing a goalless draw against the 2019 Asian Champion and 2022 FIFA World Cup host Qatar.[86] However, in the third match, the home leg against Bangladesh saw them managing a disappointing 1−1 draw.[87] A similar result was repeated in the away leg against Afghanistan.[88] In the away leg, India lost yet again to Oman by a solitary goal, thus shortening their hopes to qualify for the next round.[89] After several postponements due to COVID-19, the team finally flew to Doha to play their remainder of games. In the return leg against Qatar, India went down to the hosts with a single goal and got knocked out of the world cup qualification contention with two games to spare. The team then made a comeback by winning their next match against Bangladesh with 2–0, and ended their campaign with a 1–1 draw against Afghanistan. With seven points in total, India finished third on the table behind Qatar and Oman, thus getting eliminated from the world cup during the second round. However they were qualified into the third round of 2023 AFC Asian Cup qualification.[90]\nTeam image\nNicknames\nIndia is officially known by the nickname 'Blue Tigers' since 2013. It is adopted from the colour Blue which forms the major colour of India's home kit (similar to the Indian national teams of other sports) and the Tiger which is the national animal of India.[91][92]\nPrior to being nicknamed as Blue Tigers, the team was known as 'Bhangra Boys'. The old nickname came about during the friendly match between India and West Bromwich Albion on July 26, 2000.[93] The crowd comprised mostly of Indian or Indian origin fans, created a great atmosphere with drums and dhols to cheer India until the final scoreline of 0–0. That night the term the 'Bhangra Boys' was born and over those three tours it became India's nickname with which the fans could identify. Especially in 2002 when India took on Jamaica in a tour which was named the Reggae Boyz vs the Bhangra Boys in the JamIn Tour.[93]\nKit and colours\nSee also: Kit history\nIndia national team jerseys with different shades of blue used in different occasions.\nThe success of the India cricket team and field hockey teams in blue jerseys made the colour more prominent. The football team, however, has used some sort of shade of blue for decades.[94]\nAt the turn of the 21st century, India wore a sky blue shirt with black shorts and sky blue socks as their kit.[94] In 2002, the All India Football Federation signed a deal with German manufacturer Adidas to produce the India kit.[95] The first kit made by Adidas was all-white.[95] After four years with Adidas, the AIFF signed an agreement for seven years with American company Nike on 27 February 2006.[96] Nike's first kits for India were in darker blue while the away kit was changed from white to orange.[97]\nIndia in 2007, wearing their traditional blue jersey.\nFor the 2011 AFC Asian Cup, in which India were participating, Nike designed India's kit using the same template it used for other national teams such as Brazil.[98] In January 2013. it was announced that the AIFF's deal with Nike was extended for an extra five years.[99] In September 2017, prior to the India U17 side's participation in the FIFA U-17 World Cup, Nike unveiled an all sky blue kit for the India senior and youth teams.[100] A year later, on 17 December 2018, it was announced that Indian manufacturer SIX5SIX would replace Nike as India's kit maker.[101] In becoming India's new kit makers, Six5Six also became the first manufacturer to pay for the rights to produce India kits, after both Nike and Adidas didn't pay.[101] Six5Six unveiled their first jerseys for the team before the 2019 AFC Asian Cup,[102] from which the home colour had a similar sky blue shade and the away colour was changed to white from orange. Both jerseys had a unique design embellished on the sleeves representing tiger stripes to pay homage to the Indian football fans, who affectionately calls the team \"Blue Tigers\".[103]\nHome stadiums\nSee also: Home Stadiums\nThe Salt Lake Stadium in Kolkata (left) and the Ambedkar Stadium in Delhi\nNumerous venues around India have hosted home matches for the national team. There is no specific home ground for the India national team. India matches have been played at stadiums such as the Salt Lake Stadium in Kolkata, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Delhi, the Fatorda Stadium in Margao, the Sree Kanteerava Stadium in Bangalore, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Kochi, the Mumbai Football Arena in Mumbai, the Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium in Guwahati and the EKA Arena in Ahmedabad.[104][105][106][107][108]\nIn recent times, competitions like 2011 SAFF Championship and 2012 Nehru Cup were held at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Delhi, the 2015 SAFF Championship at Trivandrum International Stadium, 2017 Hero Tri-Nation Series & 2018 Intercontinental Cup at Mumbai Football Arena and 2019 Intercontinental Cup at the EKA Arena. Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium, Sree Kanteerava Stadium and Fatorda stadium have seen AFC Asian Cup and FIFA World Cup qualifiers.[109][110][111][112][113][114][115]\nSupporters\nSee also: Blue Pilgrims\nBlue Pilgrims, 2018, displaying tri-colour and their banners\nTill the 21st century, the Indian football fans were mostly scattered, being widely based in West Bengal, North-East India, Goa and Kerala.[116][117][118][119][120] Other than matches in Asian Games, Nehru Cup or SAFF Championship,[121][122][123] the crowd showed up in small numbers when the team played as the fans were not organised under any single banner as happens in Europe or South America. Fans of different clubs used to support the team in their respective local venues but were not grouped together to support a single cause, that of the national team, until 2017 when \"Blue Pilgrims\" was established as the first organised fan club for the national team.[124][125][126][127]\nThe Blue Pilgrims formed with a motive to support the national team and the U-17 team during the historic 2017 U17 World Cup,[128] India's first ever FIFA competition participation. Started with 300 odd fans,[129][128] now they are in thousands as a unification of fans from different regions with different allegiances came together for just one cause, the Blue Tigers.[124][125] They call themselves the devotees of the Blue Tigers,[125][126] and their motto is to support India national football teams of all gender and age, wherever they play[124][125] and for such dedication they are called as the 12th man of the team.[129][128]\nThe 3D Blue Tiger tifo displayed by Blue Pilgrims in June 2018\nThe Blue Pilgrims's most common chants are: \"Oh India!\", \"In Unity we stand\", \"Oh India we stand for you!\", \"Vande Mataram\".[130][131] Their sports anthems are \"Oh when the blues go marching in, I wanna be in that number!\" and \"Hum honge kaamyab\" (We shall overcome).[129] Since its formation, the Blue Pilgrims use to celebrate after every match with Viking clap with the national team members.[132][133] Fans of the India national team display the country's tricolour National flag and also wear blue jerseys in solidarity with the team. They used to display their banner Blue Pilgrims along with \"Inquilab-e-Indian football\" (Revolution of Indian football)[124][125][134] and often shout their common slogan, We love you, wherever you go, we follow!\".[130] On 2 June 2018, the then captain Sunil Chhetri posted a video on social media. In his video he urged the fans to come out at Mumbai to support the team after a poor crowd appearance of only 2569 at a match against Chinese Taipei in the 2018 Intercontinental Cup. India achieved a massive victory in that match, winning by 5−0 with Chhetri scoring a hat-trick, but there were very few people present to celebrate.[135][136] Responding to the captain's call, the Blue Pilgrims and football supporters including the fan clubs like Manjappada, West Block Blues and East Bengal Ultras made sure that the stadiums were full during the next few matches.[136][137] In the final of that tournament, the Blue Pilgrims displayed a 30 ft (9.1 m) tall 3D tifo of a Blue Tiger, the first ever in the team's history.[132][138][139]\nMedia coverage\nFurther information: Football broadcast in India\nIndia's competitive international games are covered on television by Star Sports and on its OTT service, Hotstar.[140] Prior to this deal, the AIFF had struck a ten-year deal with Zee Sports in 2006 to broadcast Indian national team's games on its channel with the initiative of 'Goal 2010' . The aim of this whole exercise was to help India qualify for the 2010 World Cup.[141]\nResults and fixtures\nMain articles: India national football team results and India national football team results (2020–present)\nMatches\nThe following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.\n2021\nOman v India\n25 March 2021 (2021-03-25) Friendly Oman 1–1 India Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n17:45 UTC+4:00\nA. Singh 43' (o.g.)\nReport\nM. Singh 55'\nStadium: Maktoom Bin Rashid\nUnited Arab Emirates v India\n29 March 2021 (2021-03-29) Friendly United Arab Emirates 6–0 India Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n19:00 UTC+4:00\nMabkhout 12', 32' (pen.), 60'\nIbrahim 64'\nde Lima 71'\nTagliabué 84'\nReport Stadium: Zabeel\nIndia v Qatar\n3 June 2021 (2021-06-03) 2022 AFC WC Q India 0–1 Qatar Doha, Qatar\n22:30 IST Report\nHatem 33'\nStadium: Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium\nReferee: Ma Ning (China)\nBangladesh v India\n7 June 2021 (2021-06-07) 2022 AFC WC Q Bangladesh 0–2 India Doha, Qatar\n19:30 IST Report\nChhetri 79', 90+2'\nStadium: Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium\nReferee: Zaid Thamer Mohammed (Iraq)\nIndia v Afghanistan\n15 June 2021 (2021-06-15) 2022 AFC WC Q India 1–1 Afghanistan Doha, Qatar\n19:30 IST\nAzizi 75' (o.g.)\nReport\nZamani 82'\nStadium: Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium\nReferee: Ali Reda (Lebanon)\nNepal v India\n2 September 2021 (2021-09-02) Friendly Nepal 1–1 India Kathmandu, Nepal\n17:30 UTC+5:45\nBista 36'\nReport\nThapa 60'\nStadium: Dasharath Rangasala\nNepal v India\n5 September 2021 (2021-09-05) Friendly Nepal 1–2 India Kathmandu, Nepal\n17:30 UTC+5:45 Tamang 87' Report Choudhary 62'\nChhetri 80' Stadium: Dasharath Rangasala\nBangladesh v India\n4 October 2021 (2021-10-04) SAFF G.S. Bangladesh v India Malé, Maldives\n16:00 UTC+5:00 Stadium: National Football Stadium\nIndia v Sri Lanka\n7 October 2021 (2021-10-07) SAFF G.S. India v Sri Lanka Malé, Maldives\n16:00 UTC+5:00 Stadium: National Football Stadium\nNepal v India\n10 October 2021 (2021-10-10) SAFF G.S. Nepal v India Malé, Maldives\n21:00 UTC+5:00 Stadium: National Football Stadium\nIndia v Maldives\n13 October 2021 (2021-10-13) SAFF G.S. India v Maldives Malé, Maldives\n21:00 UTC+5:00 Stadium: National Football Stadium\nCoaching staff\nCurrent personnel\nOn 15 May 2019, Igor Štimac was announced as the head coach of the national team.[1] Joining him as the other technical staffs were his fellow Croats Luka Radman[142] and Tomislav Rogić[143] as Fitness and Goalkeeping coach respectively. The assistant coach Shanmugam Venkatesh continued as the assistant coach after his appointment back in February 2015.[144]\nThe AIFF's technical committee conducted a virtual meeting on 29 May in 2021, where they decided to hand over an extension to the head coach Igor Štimac's tenure for three more months. The committee also decided not to extend the technical director, Doru Isac's contract and appointed Savio Medeira as the interim technical director. On 20 June 2021, the technical committee decided to hand over a one-year extension to Igor Štimac which will last till September 2022 in accordance to the 3rd Round of Asian Cup Qualifiers starting from Feb.[145][146]\nName\nRole\nIgor Štimac[1] Head Coach\nShanmugam Venkatesh[144] Assistant Coach\nLuka Radman[142] Fitness Coach\nTomislav Rogić[147] Goalkeeping Coach\nSavio Medeira[146] Technical Director (Interim)\nPast head coaches\nSee also: India national football team records and statistics\nSince India's independence, there have been twenty-nine different head coaches for the national team, out of which eleven foreign. The most successful head coach for India was Syed Abdul Rahim, who led India to gold in both the 1951 and 1962 Asian Games while also achieving a fourth-place finish during the 1956 Summer Olympics. The most successful foreign head coaches for India were Bob Houghton and Stephen Constantine; both of them helped the team to qualify for AFC Asian Cup. With Houghton in charge from 2006 to 2011,[148] India won the Nehru Cup twice and the AFC Challenge Cup in 2008 which allowed India to participate in their first AFC Asian Cup for 27 years.[148] Since Houghton resigned as India team Head coach in 2011, the Indian national team's FIFA ranking touched its lowest at 173 in the team history in March 2015,[149][150] but Constantine, who was appointed for the second time as the head coach of India,[151][152] revived the Indian team from its meagre condition. Under him, the team remained unbeaten for two years from June 2016 to March 2018 winning 11 matches and drawn 2 matches,[153][154] which helped them to qualify for 2019 AFC Asian Cup after 8 years since Houghton left.[155] He also helped the team to reach a better FIFA ranking of 96 in July 2017, which was the best in last 21 years.[149][150]\nSyed Abdul Rahim, the most successful Indian coach for the national team\nStephen Constantine, one of the most successful foreign coaches for the national team (2015-2019)\nIgor Stimac is the current coach of the national team\nName\nPeriod\nBalaidas Chatterjee 1948\nSyed Abdul Rahim 1951–1952[156]\nBalaidas Chatterjee 1953[157]\nSyed Abdul Rahim 1954[156]\nBalaidas Chatterjee 1954[158]\nSaroj Bose 1955[159]\nSyed Abdul Rahim 1956–1962[156]\nT. Shome 1958[160]\nSailendra Nath Manna 1961[161]\nG. M. Pentiah 1963[162]\nHarry Wright 1964[163]\nMohammed Hussain 1964–1967[164][165]\nSachindranath Mitra 1966[166]\nS. R. Deb 1967[167]\nSailendra Nath Manna 1968[168]\nJarnail Singh 1969[169]\nG. M. H. Basha 1970–1971[170]\nP. K. Banerjee 1972–1974[171][172][173]\nJarnail Singh 1976[174]\nSahu Mewalal 1977[175]\nG. M. H. Basha 1977[176]\nArun Ghosh 1978[177]\nG. M. H. Basha 1980[178]\nP. K. Banerjee 1981–1982[173][179][180]\nBob Bootland 1982[181][182]\nJoe Kinnear 1983[183]\nMilovan Ćirić 1984–1985[184][185]\nArun Ghosh 1985[186]\nP. K. Banerjee 1985–1986[173]\nSyed Nayeemuddin 1987−1989[187][188][189]\nJózsef Gelei 1990–1991[190]\nDerek D'Souza 1992–1993[191]\nJiří Pešek 1993−1994[192][193][194][195]\nRustam Akramov 1995−1996[196]\nSyed Nayeemuddin 1997–1998[187]\nSukhwinder Singh 1999–2001[197]\nIslam Ahmedov 2001[198]\nStephen Constantine 2002–2005[199][151]\nSukhwinder Singh 2005[200][201][202]\nSyed Nayeemuddin 2005–2006[187][200]\nBob Houghton 2006–2011[203][204]\nArmando Colaco 2011[205]\nSavio Medeira 2011–2012[206][207]\nWim Koevermans 2012–2015[208][209]\nStephen Constantine 2015–2019[151][210]\nIgor Štimac 2019−present[211]\nPlayers\nSee also: List of India international footballers\nCurrent squad\nThe following 25 players were named in the final squad for the friendly matches against Nepal .[212]\nNo.\nPos.\nPlayer\nDate of birth (age)\nCaps\nGoals\nClub\n1 1GK\nGurpreet Singh Sandhu (Vice Captain)\n(1992-02-03) 3 February 1992 (age 29) 43 0 Bengaluru\n13 1GK\nDheeraj Singh Moirangthem\n(2000-07-04) 4 July 2000 (age 21) 0 0 Goa\n23 1GK\nAmrinder Singh\n(1993-05-27) 27 May 1993 (age 28) 7 0 ATK Mohun Bagan\n2 2DF\nRahul Bheke\n(1990-12-06) 6 December 1990 (age 30) 13 0 Mumbai City\n3 2DF\nSubhasish Bose\n(1995-08-18) 18 August 1995 (age 26) 23 0 ATK Mohun Bagan\n4 2DF\nChinglensana Singh\n(1996-11-27) 27 November 1996 (age 24) 5 0 Hyderabad\n17 2DF\nMandar Rao Dessai\n(1992-03-18) 18 March 1992 (age 29) 38 0 Mumbai City\n19 2DF\nAkash Mishra\n(2001-11-27) 27 November 2001 (age 19) 4 0 Hyderabad\n20 2DF\nPritam Kotal\n(1993-09-08) 8 September 1993 (age 28) 39 0 ATK Mohun Bagan\n26 2DF\nSeriton Fernandes\n(1992-10-26) 26 October 1992 (age 28) 2 0 Goa\n5 3MF\nJeakson Singh Thounaojam\n(2001-06-21) 21 June 2001 (age 20) 1 0 Kerala Blasters\n6 3MF\nPronay Halder\n(1993-02-25) 25 February 1993 (age 28) 22 1 Jamshedpur\n7 3MF\nAnirudh Thapa\n(1998-01-15) 15 January 1998 (age 23) 27 3 Chennaiyin\n8 3MF\nGlan Martins\n(1994-07-01) 1 July 1994 (age 27) 5 0 Goa\n10 3MF\nBrandon Fernandes\n(1994-09-20) 20 September 1994 (age 26) 10 0 Goa\n14 3MF\nBipin Singh\n(1995-03-10) 10 March 1995 (age 26) 5 0 Mumbai City\n15 3MF\nSahal Abdul Samad\n(1997-04-01) 1 April 1997 (age 24) 11 0 Kerala Blasters\n16 3MF\nMohammad Yasir\n(1998-04-14) 14 April 1998 (age 23) 3 0 Hyderabad\n18 3MF\nLalengmawia\n(2000-10-17) 17 October 2000 (age 20) 6 0 Mumbai City\n21 3MF\nSuresh Singh Wangjam\n(2000-08-07) 7 August 2000 (age 21) 6 0 Bengaluru\n9 4FW\nManvir Singh\n(1995-11-07) 7 November 1995 (age 25) 22 4 ATK Mohun Bagan\n11 4FW\nSunil Chhetri (Captain)\n(1984-08-03) 3 August 1984 (age 37) 120 75 Bengaluru\n12 4FW\nFarukh Choudhary\n(1996-11-08) 8 November 1996 (age 24) 5 1 Jamshedpur\n17 4FW\nListon Colaço\n(1998-11-12) 12 November 1998 (age 22) 5 0 ATK Mohun Bagan\n22 4FW\nRahim Ali\n(2000-04-21) 21 April 2000 (age 21) 2 0 Chennaiyin\nRecent callups\nThe following players have been called up to India within the last twelve months.\nPos.\nPlayer\nDate of birth (age)\nCaps\nGoals\nClub\nLatest call-up\nGK\nSubhasish Roy Chowdhury\n(1986-09-27) 27 September 1986 (age 34) 4 0 NorthEast United NT camp, March 2021\nGK\nVishal Kaith\n(1996-07-22) 22 July 1996 (age 25) 4 0 Chennaiyin NT camp, August 2021\nDF\nAshutosh Mehta\n(1991-02-21) 21 February 1991 (age 30) 1 0 ATK Mohun Bagan v. Oman, 25 March 2021\nDF\nAsish Rai\n(1999-01-27) 27 January 1999 (age 22) 0 0 Hyderabad NT camp, August 2021\nDF\nNarender Gahlot\n(2001-04-24) 24 April 2001 (age 20) 3 1 Jamshedpur NT camp, August 2021\nDF\nMashoor Shereef\n(1993-01-05) 5 January 1993 (age 28) 1 0 NorthEast United v. United Arab Emirates, 29 March 2021\nDF\nAdil Khan\n(1988-07-07) 7 July 1988 (age 33) 12 1 SC East Bengal NT camp, August 2021\nDF\nSandesh JhinganINJ\n(1993-07-21) 21 July 1993 (age 28) 40 4 Šibenik v. Afghanistan, 15 June 2021\nMF\nHitesh Sharma\n(1997-12-25) 25 December 1997 (age 23) 3 0 Hyderabad v. United Arab Emirates, 29 March 2021\nMF\nHalicharan Narzary\n(1994-05-10) 10 May 1994 (age 27) 27 1 Hyderabad v. United Arab Emirates, 29 March 2021\nMF\nAshique KuruniyanINJ\n(1997-06-18) 18 June 1997 (age 24) 21 1 Bengaluru v. Afghanistan, 15 June 2021\nMF\nRowllin Borges\n(1992-06-05) 5 June 1992 (age 29) 34 2 Mumbai City NT camp, June 2021\nMF\nLallianzuala ChhangteINJ\n(1997-06-08) 8 June 1997 (age 24) 13 4 Chennaiyin NT camp, June 2021\nFW\nUdanta Singh Kumam\n(1996-06-14) 14 June 1996 (age 25) 29 1 Bengaluru NT camp, August 2021\nFW\nIshan Pandita\n(1998-05-26) 26 May 1998 (age 23) 2 0 Jamshedpur NT camp, August 2021\nINJ Withdrew from the squad due to injury\nCOV Tested positive for COVID-19\nNotable players\nSee also: Notable Players\nPostage stamp issued in 1998, to honour Gostha Pal\nDuring the early 20th century, India produced one of the best footballers from Asia at that time, Gostha Pal. Pal began playing professional football at the age of 16 in 1911, becoming India's first captain, and was considered one of the best defenders India had ever produced. He was also the first footballer to be awarded Padma Shree in the year 1962,[213] and in 1998, the Government of India introduced a postal stamp in his honour.[14][15] In the later 1930s, players like R. Lumsden, Noor Mohammed, T. Rahim, K. Prosad, A. Nandi under the leadership of Karuna Bhattacharya played for India who scored a total of 56 goals in 17 matches during the 1938 Australia tour out of which 5 matches were against Australia, where Lumsden scored the first international hat-trick for India.[214][18]\nPostage stamp issued in 2018, to honour Talimeren Ao\nIndia's first captain after the country gained independence was Talimeren Ao. At a very young age, using footballs made out of rags, Ao gradually improved his skills as a defensive midfielder. He was given the responsibility of leading the team at the 1948 Olympics, India's first major tournament[215][216] and also was the flag bearer of Indian contingents in London.[217] Also during this era, India produced Sailen Manna, one of the country's best defenders.[218] He was given the India captaincy in 1951 during the Asian Games, led the team to the gold medal, India's first major internationally honour,[218] and also captained the team during the 1952 Olympics and 1954 Asian Games.[218] In 1953, England Football Association rated Manna among \"10 Best Skippers of the World\" in its yearbook,[219] the Government of India awarded him Padma Shri in 1971[213] and AIFF honoured him as \"AIFF Player-of-the-Millennium\" in 2000.[218]\nDuring India's golden era between the 1950s and early 60s, the country produced coveted strikers such as Sheoo Mewalal, Neville D'Souza, Chuni Goswami and Tulsidas Balaram. Mewalal was India's starting striker during the 1948 Olympics, 1952 Olympics and 1951 Asian games where he ended as the tournament top goalscorer with four goals.[220][221] Mewalal was the first Indian player to score a hat-trick since the country gained independence when he scored it against Burma during the 1952 Colombo Cup.[222] D'Souza meanwhile became the first Asian player to score a hat-trick at the Olympic Games,[223] scoring a hat-trick against Australia during the 1956 Olympics.[224] D'Souza also tied for top goalscorer in that edition of the Olympics, which helped India reach the semi-finals.[225] Goswami represented India at the 1958 Asian Games and the 1960 Olympics, and captained the side during the 1962 Asian Games and the 1964 Asian Cup.[226] He was bestowed with Padma Shri by the Government of India and AFC honoured him as \"Best Striker of Asia\" in 1962.[227]\nP. K. Banerjee, a winger who represented India at the 1956 Olympics and later captained the side during the 1960 Olympics, was named as the best \"Indian player of the 20th Century\".[228] Peter Thangaraj was the starting goalkeeper for India during the later stage of India's golden era, being named as best \"Indian keeper of the 20th Century\" by IFFHS.[228] P. K. Banerjee was honoured with Padma Shri by Government of India in 1990, and in 2004 FIFA bestowed him with \"FIFA Centennial Order of Merit\" Award, the highest honour awarded by FIFA.[229][230]\nFrom the 1970s to the 2000s, India saw a decline in their results. Despite the lack of tournament victories, the country managed to produce players like Syed Nayeemuddin who led India to bronze at the 1970 Asian Games.[231] During the 1990s, I. M. Vijayan, India's best player at the time, was capped 66 times for India while scoring 29 goals and captaining the team several times.[232]\nSunil Chhetri celebrating after scoring a goal\nIn 1995, Bhaichung Bhutia debuted for India. With Bhutia, India qualified for the AFC Asian Cup after a drought of 27 years.[233] He was the captain of the team for over ten years.[234][235][236] Considered one of the greatest footballers of India, he is the second-most-capped player of India with 82 caps and scored 27 times for India. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 2008[213] and IFFHS listed him among the legendary players of football in 2016.[237] Under Bhutia's captaincy Sunil Chhetri debuted for India who is now the only footballer in India's history to have played 100 international matches and is the all-time highest goal-scorer of India.[238][239] Chhetri led the national team to many victories, most importantly qualifying for the AFC Asian Cup and under his leadership the team achieved its highest FIFA ranking of 96 after twenty-one years.[149][150] His goal-scoring ability and skills made him the only Indian striker to score three hat-tricks for India.[240][241][242]\nCompetitive record\nSee also: India national football team records and statistics § Competition records\nFIFA World Cup\nIndia has never played in the finals of a FIFA World Cup.[243] After gaining independence in 1947, India managed to qualify for the World Cup held in 1950. This was due to Myanmar, Indonesia, and the Philippines withdrawing from qualification.[243] However, prior to the start of the tournament, India themselves withdrew due to the expenses required in getting the team to Brazil.[243] Other reasons cited for why India withdrew include FIFA not allowing Indian players to play in the tournament barefoot and the All India Football Federation not considering the World Cup an important tournament compared to the Olympics.[243]\nAfter withdrawing from the 1950 FIFA World Cup, India did not enter the qualifying rounds of the tournament between 1954 and 1982.[244] Since the 1986 qualifiers, with the exception of the 1990 edition of the tournament, the team participated in World Cup qualification, but has yet to qualify for the finals again.[244]\nFIFA World Cup record\nFIFA World Cup qualification record\nYear\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\nSquad\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\n1930\nto\n1938 Did not enter Did not enter\n1950 Withdrew Qualified by default\n1954 Denied by FIFA Denied by FIFA\n1958\nto\n1982 Did not enter Did not enter\n1986 Did not qualify 6 2 3 1 7 6\n1990 Withdrew from qualification\n1994 8 1 1 6 8 22\n1998 3 1 1 1 3 7\n2002 6 3 2 1 11 5\n2006 6 1 1 4 2 18\n2010 2 0 1 1 3 6\n2014 2 0 1 1 2 5\n2018 10 2 1 7 7 18\n2022 8 1 4 3 6 7\n2026 To be determined To be determined\nTotal\n0/22\n0\n0\n0\n0\n0\n0\n51\n11\n15\n25\n49\n93\nAFC Asian Cup\nMain article: India at the AFC Asian Cup\nIndia has qualified for the AFC Asian Cup four times. The team played their first Asian Cup in 1964. The team managed to qualify following other nations' refusal to play against India due to political reasons.[245][246] India managed to finish the tournament as runners-up to hosts Israel, with Inder Singh finishing as joint top-scorer.[246] Since then India has failed to progress beyond the first round of the Asian Cup with their participation at the 1984[247] and 2011 Asian Cups,[248] and most recently the 2019 Asian Cup.[82]\nAFC Asian Cup record\nAFC Asian Cup qualification record\nHost/Year\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\nSquad\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\n1956 Did not enter Did not enter\n1960 Did not qualify 6 2 0 4 7 9\n1964 Runners-up 2nd 3 2 0 1 5 3 Squad Bye\n1968 Did not qualify 3 0 1 2 2 6\n1972\nto\n1980 Did not enter Did not enter\n1984 Group stage 10th 4 0 1 3 0 7 Squad 4 3 0 1 8 2\n1988\nto\n2007 Did not qualify 21 2 4 15 17 57\n2011 Group stage 16th 3 0 0 3 3 13 Squad 2008 AFC Challenge Cup winners\n2015 Did not qualify Failed to win 2012 & did not qualify for 2014 AFC Challenge Cup\n2019 Group stage 17th 3 1 0 2 4 4 Squad 18 8 2 8 25 24\n2023 To be determined In progress\nTotals\nRunners-up\n4/17\n13\n3\n1\n9\n12\n27\n42\n13\n6\n23\n50\n86\nSummer Olympics\nSee also: India at the Olympics\nTalimeren Ao (left), leading India out at the Cricklefield Stadium to play against France in 1948\nIndia competed in four straight Olympic football tournaments between 1948 and 1960. Their sole 1948 Olympics match against France was also India's first ever international match since the country gained independence in 1947.[19] During the match, a majority of the Indian side played barefoot.[19] The match ended in a 2–1 defeat, with Sarangapani Raman scoring the lone goal for India.[19] India then returned to the Olympics four years later where they took on Yugoslavia in the preliminary rounds. The team suffered a 10–1 defeat, India's largest margin of defeat, and were knocked out.[249]\nFour years later, during the 1956 Olympics, India managed to reach the semi-finals and finish fourth. After India's first round opponents, Hungary, withdrew from the tournament, the team played against hosts Australia in the quarter-finals. A Neville D'Souza hat-trick, the first by an Asian footballer in the Olympics, helped India win 4–2.[250] However, in the semi-finals, India once again suffered defeat against Yugoslavia, going down 4–1. In the bronze medal match, India were defeated 3–0 by Bulgaria.[250]\nIn 1960, India competed in Group D with Hungary, France and Peru. India ended the group in last place, drawing once.[251] India have since failed to qualify for another Olympic games.\nSummer Olympics record\nSummer Olympics qualification record\nHost/Year\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\nSquad\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\n1908– 1936 Did not enter Did not enter\n1948 Round 1 11th 1 0 0 1 1 2 Squad Qualified automatically\n1952 Preliminaries 25th 1 0 0 1 1 10 Squad\n1956 Semi-finals 4th 3 1 0 2 5 9 Squad Bye\n1960 Round 1 13th 3 0 1 2 3 6 Squad 4 4 0 0 13 4\n1964– 1988 Did not qualify 20 6 1 13 34 38\nTotal\nSemi-finals\n4 / 17\n8\n1\n1\n6\n10\n27\n24\n10\n1\n13\n47\n42\nAsian Games\nIndia competed in eleven Asian Games starting from 1951 to 1998 except the 1990 and 1994 editions.[252] In 1951 Asiad India won their first match against Indonesia in the first round and then defeated Japan in semi-final and went on to win against Iran in the final infront of the home crowd. The achievement of the Indian team was a special one as they became the first ever Asian Games gold medalists and also the first ever Asian football champions.[253]\nThough the next two tournaments proved less successful for the team, but they bounced back by winning the gold at the 1962 Asian games by defeating the Asian Cup winners South Korea in the final to win their second continental title. The team failed to defend their title in 1966 and went on to claim the bronze medal in 1970.[254]\nThis was the last time India ever finished on the medal podium, the next years proved to be hard for the Indian team to regain their dominance as the side went through a sharp decline.[255] After two disappointing editions in 1974 and 1978, India performed much better in the 1982 Asiad, which they hosted for the second time by reaching the quarter-finals but lost to Saudi Arabia. Due to the Poor performance in 1986 Asian Games the authorities decided not to send the team for the upcoming games.[256] The team made their return in 1998.\nAsian Games record\nHost/Year\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\nSquad\n1951 Champions 1st 3 3 0 0 7 0 Squad\n1954 Round 1 8th 2 1 0 1 3 6 Squad\n1958 Semi-finals 4th 5 2 0 3 12 13 Squad\n1962 Champions 1st 5 4 0 1 11 6 Squad\n1966 Round 1 8th 3 1 0 2 4 7 Squad\n1970 Third place 3rd 6 3 1 2 8 5 Squad\n1974 Round 1 13th 3 0 0 3 2 14 Squad\n1978 Round 2 8th 5 1 0 4 5 13 Squad\n1982 Quarter-finals 6th 4 2 1 1 5 3 Squad\n1986 Round 1 16th 3 0 0 3 1 8 Squad\n1990 Did not enter\n1994 Did not enter\n1998 Round 2 16th 5 1 0 4 3 8 Squad\nTotal\n2 Titles\n11 / 13\n44\n18\n2\n24\n61\n83\nSAFF Championship\nIndia has played in all twelve editions of the SAFF Championship and has been the most successful team in the competition winning an overall seven titles.[257] The team played in knockout stage of every tournament except in 1993 where the tournament was in a league format.[258] The team also boasts a prestigious record of claiming medal at every championships played so far.[259]\nIndia has played in the final of every championship except the 2003 tournament where they claimed bronze medal for the first time.[260] India also boasts several records such as the team has scored the most goals, conceded least numbers of goals, registered most wins, fewest draws and fewest defeats than any other team in the competition's history.[261]\nSAFF Championship record\nYear\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\n1993 Champions 1st 3 2 1 0 4 1\n1995 Runners-up 2nd 3 0 2 1 2 3\n1997 Champions 1st 4 3 1 0 12 3\n1999 Champions 1st 4 3 1 0 6 1\n2003 Semi-finals 3rd 5 2 1 2 8 5\n2005 Champions 1st 5 4 1 0 8 2\n2008 Runners-up 2nd 5 4 0 1 9 3\n2009 Champions 1st 5 3 1 1 3 2\n2011 Champions 1st 5 4 1 0 16 2\n2013 Runners-up 2nd 5 2 1 2 4 5\n2015 Champions 1st 4 4 0 0 11 4\n2018 Runners-up 2nd 4 3 0 1 8 3\n2021 Qualified\nTotal\n7 Titles\n12/12\n52\n34\n10\n8\n91\n34\nAFC Challenge Cup\nIndia has participated in AFC Challenge Cup four time.[262] The tournament was originally created for countries categorized as emerging association, though India was invited to take part by AFC along with other developing association countries.[263] The team won the 2008 AFC Challenge Cup and qualified to the Asian Cup after 27 years.[264][265]\nAFC Challenge Cup record\nAFC Challenge Cup Qualification record\nHost/Year\nResult\nPosition\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\nSquad\nPld\nW\nD\nL\nGF\nGA\n2006 Quarter-final 8 4 1 2 1 3 4 Squad Qualified automatically\n2008 Champions 1st 5 4 1 0 9 3 Squad Qualified as hosts\n2010 Group Stage 8 3 0 0 3 1 6 Squad Qualified automatically\n2012 Group stage 8th 3 0 0 3 0 8 Squad 3 2 1 0 7 2\n2014 Did not qualify 3 2 0 1 6 2\nTotals\n1 Title\n4/5\n15\n5\n3\n7\n13\n21\n6\n4\n1\n1\n13\n4\nSee also\nIndia portal\nAssociation football portal\nYouth Teams\nIndia U-23\nIndia U-20\nIndia U-17\nFootball in India\nWomen's football in India\nHistory of Indian football\nMission XI Million\nFutsal Association of India\nIndia national beach soccer team\nMiscellaneous\nList of India national football team hat-tricks\nList of Indian football players in foreign leagues\nReferences\n^ a b c \"AIFF appoints Igor Stimac as new men's senior national team coach\". the-aiff.com. 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The Outlook India. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.\n^ \"1970 Asian Games Bronze Medallist and former India number one Bandya Kakade passes away\". goal.com. Goal. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2018.\n^ \"Invalappil Mani Vijayan - Goals in International Matches\". rsssf.com. RSSSF. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2018.\n^ \"Baichung Bhutia Biography\". www.mapsofindia.com. Maps of India. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2018.\n^ \"Bhaichung Bhutia-Inspirational leader both on and off the field\". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2018.\n^ \"Bhutia brings down the curtain on his international career\". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2018.\n^ \"Bhaichung Bhutia Retires From International Football at the Age of 34\". goal.com. Goal.Com. 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Retrieved 15 July 2018.\n^ a b c d Choudhury, Chandrahas (11 June 2014). \"Blame India's World Cup Drought on the Shoes\". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2016.\n^ a b \"The Indian National Team's World Cup qualifying\". Indianfootball.de. Archived from the original on 14 June 2010.\n^ \"India's performances at the AFC Asian Cup\". goal.com. GOAL. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2018.\n^ a b \"Asian Nations Cup 1964\". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2017.\n^ \"Asian Nations Cup 1984\". rsssf.com. RSSSF. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2019.\n^ \"Asian Nations Cup 2011\". rsssf.com. RSSSF. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2019.\n^ \"Yugoslavia 10-1 India\". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2018.\n^ a b \"Olympics 1956\". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008.\n^ \"Olympics 1960\". RSSSF. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2018.\n^ \"When India Conquered the continent\". Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"Indian football team at the 1951 Asian Games\". Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"The best technical team in Asia\". Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"Disaster against Myanmar\". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"India football team at the 1986 Asian Games\". Archived from the original on 16 September 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"SAFF Cup, indianfootball.de\". Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"RSSSF 1993 SAFF Cup\". Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"India land tough saff championship draw: AFC.com\". Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021.\n^ \"India's Prestigious records at SAFF Championship\". Archived from the original on 30 June 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"Asian tournament records Sportskeeda.com\". Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"RSSSF 2008 AFC Challenge Cup\". Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"World football.net\". Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"There was no way we could lose\". Retrieved 22 January 2021.\n^ \"2008 AFC Challenge Cup Winners\". Retrieved 22 January 2021.\nExternal links\nWikimedia Commons has media related to India national association football team.\nAll India Football Federation\nFIFA team profile\nv\nt\ne\nIndia national football team\nGeneral\nAll India Football Federation\nHistory\nKits\nNotable players\nManagers\nVenues\nSalt Lake Stadium\nJ.N. Stadium (Delhi)\nJ.N. Stadium (Kochi)\nJ.N. Stadium (Chennai)\nAmbedkar Stadium\nSree Kanteerava Stadium\nIndira Gandhi Athletic Stadium\nFatorda Stadium\nTrivandrum International Stadium\nMumbai Football Arena\nEKA Arena\nRecords and stats\nCompetitive record\nOlympics record\nAFC Asian Cup record\nPlayer records\nHead-to-head record\nPlayer list\nGoals by Sunil Chhetri\nHat-tricks\nmen\nwomen\nResults\nMen's\nIndia\n1933–46\n1947–59\n1960–69\n1970–79\n1980–89\n1990–99\n2000–09\n2010–19\n2020–present\nUnofficial\nWomen's\nIndia women's\n1980–1989\n1990–1999\n2000–2009\n2010–2019\n2020–2029\nOther teams\nMen's\nU-23\nU-20\nU-17\nWomen's\nW U-20\nW U-17\nOther linked articles\nv\nt\ne\nIndia national football team matches\nAsian Games Finals\n1951\n1962\nSAFF Championship Finals\n1995\n1997\n1999\n2005\n2008\n2009\n2011\n2013\n2015\n2018\nAFC Challenge Cup Finals\n2008\nNehru Cup Finals\n2007\n2009\n2012\nv\nt\ne\nIndia national football team – managers\nChatterjee (1948)\nRahim (1950–63)\nWright (1963–64)\nP. K. Banerjee (1972–81)\nBootland (1982)\nKinnear (1983)\nĆirić (1984–85)\nP. K. Banerjee (1985)\nNayeemuddin (1986)\nDutta (1987–88)\nGelei (1990–91)\nPešek (1993–94)\nAkramov (1995–97)\nNayeemuddin (1997–98)\nSingh (1998–2001)\nConstantine (2002–05)\nSingh (2005)\nNayeemuddin (2005–06)\nHoughton (2006–11)\nColaco (2011)\nMedeira (2011–12)\nKoevermans (2012–15)\nConstantine (2015–19)\nŠtimac (2019–)\nTitles\nAchievements\nPreceded by\nInaugural Champions Asian Games Champions\n1951 (First title) Succeeded by\n1954 Chinese Taipei\nPreceded by\n1958 Chinese Taipei Asian Games Champions\n1962 (Second title) Succeeded by\n1966 Myanmar\nPreceded by\n2006 Tajikistan AFC Challenge Cup Champions\n2008 (First title) Succeeded by\n2010 North Korea\nv\nt\ne\nAsian Games football men's tournament winners\n1951: India\n1954: Republic of China\n1958: Republic of China\n1962: India\n1966: Burma\n1970: Burma / South Korea\n1974: Iran\n1978: North Korea / South Korea\n1982: Iraq\n1986: South Korea\n1990: Iran\n1994: Uzbekistan\n1998: Iran\n2002: Iran\n2006: Qatar\n2010: Japan\n2014: South Korea\n2018: South Korea\nv\nt\ne\nAFC Challenge Cup winners\n2006: Tajikistan\n2008: India\n2010: North Korea\n2012: North Korea\n2014: Palestine\nv\nt\ne\nFootball in India\nAll India Football Federation\nState Football Associations\nHistory\nLeague system\nState leagues\nClubs\nChampions (Asian competition)\nStadiums\nWomen's football\nNational teams\nMen\nIndia\nU-23\nU-20\nU-17\nWomen\nIndia\nU-20\nU-17\nLeague competitions\nLevel 1\nIndian Super League\nI-League\nLevel 2\nI-League 2nd Division\nState/District\nArunachal Pradesh\nAssam\nBangalore\nCalcutta\nDelhi\nGoa\nKerala\nManipur\nMizoram\nMumbai\nNagaland\nOdisha\nPune\nPunjab\nRajasthan\nShillong\nSikkim\nUttarakhand\nWomen\nIndian Women's League\nWomen State/District\nCalcutta\nKarnataka\nOdisha\nYouth\nElite League\nCup competitions\nClub\nSuper Cup\nState/District\nSantosh Trophy\nWomen's Championship\nOther\nDurand Cup\nSubroto Cup\nMir Iqbal Hussain Trophy\nB.C. Roy Trophy\nIFA Shield\nFutsal competition\nFutsal Club Championship (AIFF)\nPremier Futsal Championship (FAI)\nDefunct leagues\nNational Football League (1996–2007)\nBengal Premier League Soccer (2011–2013)\nNational Football League Second Division (1997-2007)\nNational Football League Third Division (2006-07)\nNational Football League (Under-19) (2001-2005)\nDefunct cups\nFederation Cup (1977–2017)\nNehru Cup (1982–2012) (international)\nSuper Cup (1997–2011)\nSports complexes\nAIFF National Center of Excellence\nv\nt\ne\nNational men's football teams of Asia (AFC)\nAFC Asian Cup\nWest Asia (WAFF)\nBahrain\nIraq\nJordan\nKuwait\nLebanon\nOman\nPalestine\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nSyria\nUnited Arab Emirates\nYemen\nCentral Asia (CAFA)\nAfghanistan\nIR Iran\nKyrgyz Republic\nTajikistan\nTurkmenistan\nUzbekistan\nSouth Asia (SAFF)\nBangladesh\nBhutan\nIndia\nMaldives\nNepal\nPakistan\nSri Lanka\nEast Asia (EAFF)\nChina PR\nChinese Taipei\nGuam\nHong Kong\nJapan\nKorea DPR\nKorea Republic\nMacau\nMongolia\nNorthern Mariana Islands1\nSoutheast Asia (AFF)\nAustralia\nBrunei\nCambodia\nIndonesia\nLaos\nMalaysia\nMyanmar\nPhilippines\nSingapore\nThailand\nTimor-Leste\nVietnam\nDefunct\nMalaya\nNorth Vietnam\nSouth Vietnam\nSouth Yemen\nFormer\nIsrael (moved to UEFA in 1994)\nKazakhstan (moved to UEFA in 2002)\nNew Zealand (formed the OFC in 1966)\n1 Not a member of FIFA\nv\nt\ne\nNational sports teams of India\nA1GP\nBadminton\nBaseball\nM\nW\nBasketball\nM\nM U18\nM U16\nM 3x3\nW\nW U18\nW U16\nW 3x3\nBeach soccer\nCricket\nM\nM A\nM U19\nBlind\nW\nField hockey\nM\nM U21\nW\nW U21\nFootball\nM\nM U23\nM U20\nM U17\nW\nW U20\nW U17\nHandball\nM\nW\nIce hockey\nM\nM U20\nM U18\nW\nInline hockey\nKabaddi\nM\nW\nKorfball\nNetball\nRoller hockey\nRugby league\nRugby union\nRugby 7s\nM\nW\nSoftball\nM\nW\nSquash\nM\nW\nTennis\nM\nW\nX\nVolleyball\nM\nW\nW U20\nW U18\nWater polo\nOlympics\nParalympics\nAsian Games\nCommonwealth Games\nLusofonia Games\nWorld Games\nIndia finalists\nv\nt\ne\n1964 AFC Asian Cup finalists\nChampions\nIsrael\nRunners-up\nIndia\nThird place\nSouth Korea\nFourth place\nHong Kong\nv\nt\ne\n1984 AFC Asian Cup finalists\nChampions\nSaudi Arabia\nRunners-up\nChina PR\nThird place\nKuwait\nFourth place\nIran\nGroup stage\nIndia\nQatar\nSingapore\nSyria\nSouth Korea\nUnited Arab Emirates\nv\nt\ne\n2011 AFC Asian Cup finalists\nChampions\nJapan\nRunners-up\nAustralia\nThird place\nSouth Korea\nFourth place\nUzbekistan\nQuarter-finals\nIran\nIraq\nJordan\nQatar\nGroup stage\nBahrain\nChina PR\nIndia\nKuwait\nNorth Korea\nSaudi Arabia\nSyria\nUnited Arab Emirates\nv\nt\ne\n2019 AFC Asian Cup finalists\nChampions\nQatar\nRunners-up\nJapan\nSemi-finals\nIran\nUnited Arab Emirates\nQuarter-finals\nAustralia\nChina PR\nSouth Korea\nVietnam\nRound of 16\nBahrain\nIraq\nJordan\nKyrgyzstan\nOman\nSaudi Arabia\nThailand\nUzbekistan\nGroup stage\nIndia\nLebanon\nNorth Korea\nPalestine\nPhilippines\nSyria\nTurkmenistan\nYemen\nIndia squads\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1948 Summer Olympics\nGK Uchil\nGK Varadaraj\nDF Manna\nDF Mohammed\nDF Varghese\nMF Ao (c)\nMF Basheer\nMF Kaiser\nMF A. Nandy\nMF Prasad\nMF Vajravelu\nFW Das\nFW Dhanraj\nFW Khan\nFW Mewalal\nFW S. Nandy\nFW Parab\nFW Raman\nCoach: Chatterjee\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1952 Summer Olympics\n1 B. Anthony\n2 Azizuddin\n3 Manna (c)\n4 Latif\n5 Rawat\n6 Noor\n7 Venkatesh\n8 Sattar\n9 Mewalal\n10 Khan\n11 Saleh\n12 Varadaraj\n13 Bose\n14 Sarbadhikari\n15 Shanmugham\n16 Moinuddin\n17 Thakurta\n18 J. Anthony\nCoach: Rahim\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1956 Summer Olympics – fourth place\n1 S. Banerjee (c)\n2 Kittu\n3 Pal\n4 Nandy\n5 P. K. Banerjee\n6 Kempaiah\n7 Kannayan\n8 Rahman\n9 Azizuddin\n10 Latif\n11 Noor\n12 Ahmed\n13 Abdul Salam\n14 D'Souza\n15 Balaram\n16 Thangaraj\n17 Narayan\n18 Zulfiqaruddin\nCoach: Rahim\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1960 Summer Olympics\nGK Narayan\nGK Thangaraj\nDF Chandrashekar\nDF Ghosh\nDF Latif\nDF Singh\nMF Chettri\nMF Franco\nMF Kempaiah\nMF Khan\nMF Lahri\nFW Balaram\nFW P. K. Banerjee (c)\nFW Devdas\nFW Goswami\nFW Hakim\nFW Hamid\nFW Kannan\nFW Sundararaj\nCoach: Rahim\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1964 AFC Asian Cup runners-up\nGK Narayan\nGK Thangaraj\nDF Banerjee\nDF Chandrashekar\nDF Ghosh\nDF Nayeemuddin\nDF J. Singh\nDF Sinha\nMF Chettri\nMF Franco\nMF Khan\nMF Mukharjee\nFW Appalraju\nFW Goswami (c)\nFW Hamid\nFW Nayagam\nFW Samajapati\nFW I. Singh\nCoach: Wright\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 1984 AFC Asian Cup\n1 Atanu\n2 Dorji\n3 T. Dey\n4 Chatterjee\n5 Roy\n6 Banerjee\n7 Panji\n8 K. Dey\n9 Thapa\n10 Ali (c)\n11 Biswajit\n12 Pereira\n14 Singh\n15 Mani\n16 Subrata\n17 Afonso\n18 Majeed\n20 Brahmanand\nCoach: Ćirić\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 2011 AFC Asian Cup\n1 Pal\n2 G. Singh\n3 Manju\n4 Masih\n5 Anwar Ali\n6 B. Singh\n7 Pradeep\n8 R. Singh\n9 Yadav\n10 Miranda\n11 Chhetri\n12 Deepak\n13 Sandhu\n14 Gawli\n15 Bhaichung (c)\n16 Mehraj\n17 Surkumar\n18 Rafi\n19 Gouramangi\n20 Climax\n21 Subhasish\n22 Nabi\n23 Dias\nCoach: Houghton\nv\nt\ne\nIndia squad – 2019 AFC Asian Cup\n1 Sandhu\n2 S. Singh\n3 Bose\n4 Golui\n5 Jhingan\n6 G. Singh\n7 Thapa\n8 Rai\n9 Passi\n10 B. Singh\n11 Chhetri (c)\n12 Lalpekhlua\n13 Kuruniyan\n14 Halder\n15 U. Singh\n16 Kaith\n17 Borges\n18 J. Singh\n19 Narzary\n20 Kotal\n21 Das\n22 Edathodika\n23 A. Singh\nCoach: Constantine\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India_national_football_team&oldid=1043856812\"\nCategories:\nIndia national football team\nFootball in India\nAsian national association football teams\nAFC Challenge Cup-winning countries\n1948 establishments in India\nHidden categories:\nCS1 maint: multiple names: authors list\nCS1 maint: archived copy as title\nAll articles with dead external links\nArticles with dead external links from April 2021\nArticles with short description\nShort description matches Wikidata\nWikipedia semi-protected pages\nWikipedia pending changes protected pages\nUse dmy dates from May 2020\nUse Indian English from March 2017\nAll Wikipedia articles written in Indian English\nPages using infobox national football team with unknown parameters\nCommons category link is on Wikidata\nPages using national squad without sport or team link\nPages using national squad without comp link\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nView source\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nIn other projects\nWikimedia Commons\nLanguages\nالعربية\nتۆرکجه\nবাংলা\nБеларуская\nČeština\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEesti\nΕλληνικά\nEspañol\nفارسی\nFrançais\nGalego\n한국어\nՀայերեն\nहिन्दी\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\nעברית\nҚазақша\nLatviešu\nLietuvių\nMagyar\nമലയാളം\nमराठी\nBahasa Melayu\nNederlands\nनेपाली\n日本語\nNorsk bokmål\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nSimple English\nСрпски / srpski\nSuomi\nSvenska\nதமிழ்\nไทย\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\nTiếng Việt\n吴语\n中文\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 12 September 2021, at 10:17 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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{"content":"Map of the Kanawha River watershed, with the New River (dark blue) and its watershed (light yellow) highlighted.\nLocation\nCountry\nUnited States\nState\nNorth Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia\nCounties\nAshe NC, Alleghany NC, Watauga NC, Grayson VA, Carroll VA, Wythe VA, Pulaski VA, Montgomery VA, Giles VA, Mercer County, West Virginia, Summers County, West Virginia, Raleigh County, West Virginia, Fayette County, West Virginia\nPhysical characteristics\nSource\nSouth Fork New River\n• location\nBoone, NC\n• coordinates\n36°12′16″N 81°38′59″W / 36.20444°N 81.64972°W / 36.20444; -81.64972\n• elevation\n3,104 ft (946 m)\n2nd source\nNorth Fork New River\n• location\nElk Knob, Watauga County, NC\n• coordinates\n36°19′59″N 81°41′04″W / 36.33306°N 81.68444°W / 36.33306; -81.68444\n• elevation\n4,446 ft (1,355 m)\nSource confluence\n• location\nAshe County, NC\n• coordinates\n36°32′45″N 81°21′09″W / 36.54583°N 81.35250°W / 36.54583; -81.35250\n• elevation\n2,546 ft (776 m)\nMouth\nKanawha River[1]\n• location\nGauley Bridge, West Virginia\n• coordinates\n38°09′42″N 81°11′47″W / 38.16167°N 81.19639°W / 38.16167; -81.19639Coordinates: 38°09′42″N 81°11′47″W / 38.16167°N 81.19639°W / 38.16167; -81.19639\n• elevation\n653 ft (199 m)\nLength\n320 mi (510 km)\nDischarge\n• location\nThurmond, WV, max and min at Glen Lyn, VA[2][3][4]\n• average\n8,730 cu ft/s (247 m3/s)\n• minimum\n538 cu ft/s (15.2 m3/s)\n• maximum\n226,000 cu ft/s (6,400 m3/s)\nBasin features\nTributaries\n• left\nBluestone River, East River\n• right\nLittle River, Indian Creek, Greenbrier River\nNational Wild and Scenic River\nType\nScenic\nDesignated\nApril 13, 1976\nThe New River is a river which flows through the U.S. states of North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia before joining with the Gauley River to form the Kanawha River at the town of Gauley Bridge, West Virginia. Part of the Ohio River watershed, it is about 360 miles (580 km) long.[1]\nThe origins of the name are unclear. Possibilities include being a new river that was not on the Fry-Jefferson map of Virginia, an Indian name meaning \"new waters\", or the surname of an early settler.[5] It was once called Wood's River for Colonel Abraham Wood, an English explorer from Virginia, who explored the river in the mid 17th century. Despite its name, the New River is one of the five oldest rivers in the world geologically.[6] However this claim is disputed by the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey and the National Park Service.[7][8]\nThis low-level crossing of the Appalachians, many millions of years old, has long been a biogeographical corridor allowing numerous species of plants and animals to spread between the lowlands of the American East Coast and those of the Midwest. Unusual kinds of plants occur on the gorge's cliffs or rim-top ledges.[9] Portions of this corridor are now also used by various railroads and highways, and some segments of the river have been dammed for hydroelectric power production.\nThe New River Gorge is not only quite scenic, but also offers numerous opportunities for white-water recreation such as rafting and kayaking. Many open ledges along the rim of the gorge offer popular views, with favorites including Hawks Nest State Park and various overlooks on lands of the New River Gorge National Park and Preserve.\nThe New River Gorge and the U.S. 19 bridge crossing it are shown on the West Virginia State Quarter, minted in 2005.\nContents\n1 Course\n2 Dams and bridges\n3 Geology\n4 Natural history\n4.1 Plants\n4.2 Animals\n4.3 Fish\n5 History\n6 Recreation\n7 Parks, forests, and trails\n8 Environmental factors and climate change\n9 Variant names\n10 See also\n11 References\n11.1 Citations\n11.2 Further reading\n12 External links\nCourse[edit]\nThis ancient river begins in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina near the City of Boone, North Carolina, flows generally northeastward through the Blue Ridge Mountains, Great Appalachian Valley, Ridge and Valley Province, and the Allegheny Front in western North Carolina and Virginia, before turning and following a more northwestward course into West Virginia, where it then cuts through the Appalachian Plateau (in the New River Gorge) to meet the Gauley River and become the Kanawha River in south-central West Virginia.[6] The Kanawha then flows into the Ohio River at Point Pleasant, West Virginia. Much of the river's course is lined with steep cliffs and rock outcrops, particularly in its gorge in West Virginia.[6][9]\nThe New River Gorge Bridge on U.S. 19 in West Virginia\nThe New River is formed by the confluence of the South Fork New River and the North Fork New River on the Ashe County-Alleghany County line in North Carolina. It then flows through Alleghany County into southwestern Virginia, passing near Galax, Virginia. It is impounded by three small dams between Galax and Ivanhoe: at Fries, by Byllesby Dam, and by Buck Dam. Continuing north, the river enters Pulaski County, Virginia, where it is impounded by Claytor Dam, creating Claytor Lake. North of the dam the New River accepts the Little River, bends around three sides of the city of Radford, Virginia and bends again around the Radford Army Ammunition Plant, marking the boundary between Pulaski and Montgomery County, Virginia, before passing through Walker Mountain via a narrow water gap. After flowing north through Giles County, Virginia and the town of Narrows, the river crosses into West Virginia.\nDams and bridges[edit]\nThe New River is impounded by Bluestone Dam, creating Bluestone Lake in Summers County, West Virginia. The Bluestone River tributary joins the New River in Bluestone Lake. Just below the dam the Greenbrier River joins the New River, which continues its northward course into the New River Gorge. Near the end of the gorge the river flows by the town of Fayetteville, West Virginia. A few miles northwest of Fayetteville, much of the New River's flow is diverted through the 3-mile (4.8 km) Hawks Nest Tunnel for use in power generation. The water re-enters the river just upstream of Gauley Bridge, where the New merges with the Gauley River to form the Kanawha River. The Kanawha is a tributary of the Ohio River, which in turn is a tributary of the Mississippi River.\nFew highways cross the gorge, with the most dramatic bridge by far being the New River Gorge Bridge on U.S. 19, a steel arch bridge spanning 1,700 feet (518 m), with the roadway 876 feet (267 m) above the average level of the river. This structure is the third-longest single-arch bridge in the world, and is also the world's twenty-third-highest vehicular[10] bridge, and the fourth highest in the Americas. At the time it was built, New River Gorge Bridge was the world's highest bridge carrying a regular roadway, a title it held until the 2001 opening of the Liuguanghe Bridge in China.\nGeology[edit]\nIronically, the New River is considered by some geologists to be one of the oldest rivers in the world,[11] and certainly one of the oldest rivers in North America.[12] The New River flows in a generally south-to-north course, at times cutting through the southwest-to-northeast-trending ridges and geological texture of the Appalachian Mountains, and flows directly through the Appalachian Plateau, contrasting with the west-to-east flow of most other major rivers to the east and northeast in Virginia and North Carolina, and on the west side of the Appalachians on the Plateau.\nIt may have been in its present course for at least 65 million years. In the geologic past, the New River was a much longer stream. Geologists have named it the Teays.[12][13] The last advance of Pleistocene continental glacial ice buried most of this river. At that time, the waters of the New were diverted into rivers (the present-day Ohio & Kanawha Rivers) created by the glaciers.\nNatural history[edit]\nOn its journey through the New River Gorge, the New River passes through an extensive geological formation. Emergent rocks and rock outcrops are found to provide diverse habitat producing rich and abundant flora and fauna species. In the gorge, there is typically a 1000 feet difference in elevation between the river bottom and the adjacent plateau. The New River dissects all physiographic provinces of the Appalachian Mountains, and therefore is believed to be a corridor facilitating the movement of southern plant and animal species into West Virginia. In addition to serving as a refuge for some species, New River Gorge provides a geographical barrier that limits the east-west distribution of other species.[13]\nBecause the New River is so old, its habitats and wildlife have been able to achieve a form of stability. Millions of years of available passage have allowed many species of plants and animals to move in and persist in the area. Since the New River cuts from east to west through the Appalachians, we find species that are typically Atlantic coastal plain and piedmont, such as melic grass, living with northern mountain species. Because time has favored the New River Gorge, certain unique species have been able to carve their own niches here. Several species of fish have evolved that are endemic (found nowhere else) to this river.[14]\nPlants[edit]\nNew River Gorge lies at the core of the largest remaining block of relatively unfragmented, mid-latitude forest in the world. The gorge section of New River supports the most diverse plant assemblage of any river gorge in the central and southern Appalachians. This is due, in part, to the moisture gradient extremes that exist between the rim and river. This portion of southern West Virginia falls within the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region. Recognized forest types include oak-hickory, mixed oak, oak-maple, oak-yellow pine, hemlock-hardwoods, northern hardwoods, cove hardwoods, and bottomland and floodplain hardwoods.[13]\nAlso located in the gorge is the rare Appalachian Flatrock plant community which includes sedges, cedars and pines. This plant assemblage occurs on flat sandstone ledges along the New River and is dependent on the scouring caused by occasional flooding for its long-term integrity.[13]\nAnimals[edit]\nA wide variety of animals live in and around the New River, the Gorge, and the surrounding forests. The New River has long served as a migration corridor for both plants and animals. For this reason, animals more commonly found much farther south may reach the northern extent of their range in the New River Gorge area. Likewise, animals more commonly associated with the northern forests may reach the southern extent of their range in this area. Other animals are found only in the New River area. These species, called endemics, were isolated from similar populations by the steep, rugged terrain of New River Gorge and/or the tumultuous rapids and waterfalls of New River. Thus isolated, these animals evolved to be adapted to the unique circumstances of New River Gorge.[13]\nApproximately 65 species of mammals are known to occur in the New River Gorge area, such as beaver, mink, muskrat, river otter. Continuous forest, abandoned mine portals, rivers and streams provide habitat for a diverse variety of amphibians like hellbenders (large aquatic salamanders). There are nearly 40 species of reptiles like the eastern fence lizard, five-lined skinks, copperhead snake, black rat snake, river cooter, stinkpot turtles (common musk turtle) and snapping turtles. And many Benthic Macroinvertebrates including worm, crustaceans and immature forms of aquatic insects such as dragon fly, stonefly and mayfly nymphs.[13]\nThe New River and the gorge area provides critical habitat for birds such as bald eagles, osprey, great blue herons, kingfishers, numerous ducks and migrating waterfowl like loons, cormorants, hooded mergansers and other migratory birds including the Cerulean warbler, a species in decline elsewhere in its range.[13]\nFish[edit]\nThe New River basin has seven endemic species of fish, which are the: Appalachia darter, bigmouth chub, bluestone sculpin, candy darter, Kanawha darter, Kanawha minnow, and New River shiner.\nHistory[edit]\nThe fur trading Batts and Fallam expedition of 1671, sent by Colonel Abraham Wood, was the first recorded exploration of the river.[15] Variant names of the New River include \"Wood River\" and \"Wood's River\", after Abraham Wood. Mary Draper Ingles traversed the gorge during her 1755 escape from captivity among the Shawnees.[16] Hiking or driving through New River Gorge today will provide glimpses of old stone walls, foundations of homes and buildings, coal mine entrances, and coke ovens decaying alongside the railroad tracks.[17]\nThe New River and its Gorge and Valley have been turned into protected parks and recreation areas along much of the river. Congress has designated the New River Gorge the \"New River Gorge National River\". The choice of national river designation came about through a long series of discussions among interested parties. A grassroots coalition formed and pleaded the case for protection of the area in Congress. The initial goal, however, was not protective designation of the gorge in West Virginia, but stopping an engineering project on the Virginia-North Carolina border. Plans had been proposed in the early 1960s to dam the New River in Virginia, backing up water into North Carolina for pumped storage, the production of hydroelectric power, and the regular flushing of pollution downstream. Proponents called it the Blue Ridge Pumped Storage Project. Many citizens in West Virginia felt that such a dam would negatively affect the gorge. Water flow and quality were major concerns. These West Virginia opponents to the dam joined those in Virginia and North Carolina and helped block the dam before shifting attention toward protection of the New River in West Virginia. The coalition ultimately chose a designation for the New River Gorge that would have a chance of success in Congress. That designation passed Congress in 1978.[18]\nRecreation[edit]\nThe New River is spanned by the New River Gorge Bridge near Fayetteville, West Virginia, which is open for BASE jumping on Bridge Day. It is also a very popular river for white water rafting (class II-IV in season, IV-V during the spring run-off), and several commercial outfitters offer a variety of guided trips. Though the water is colder in spring, the river is more challenging. Near the bridge, there are over 1400 single pitch sport climbs[19] and trails suitable for hiking and mountain biking.\nThe New River in Giles County, Virginia (photo courtesy of InFlight Aerial Imaging Services, LLC)\nThe New River Gorge and Bridge near Fayetteville, West Virginia\nParks, forests, and trails[edit]\nNew River in Montgomery Co., Virginia\nListed from upstream to downstream:\nPisgah National Forest (on the South Fork)\nElk Knob State Park (on the North Fork)\nNew River State Park, North Carolina\nNew River Trail State Park, Virginia\nShot Tower Historical State Park, Virginia\nClaytor Lake State Park, Virginia\nJefferson National Forest\nAppalachian National Scenic Trail\nBluestone Wildlife Management Area\nBluestone State Park, West Virginia\nNew River Gorge National Park and Preserve\nBabcock State Park, West Virginia\nHawks Nest State Park, West Virginia\nEnvironmental factors and climate change[edit]\nSee also: Climate change in North Carolina\nMuch of the river's course through West Virginia is designated as the New River Gorge National Park and Preserve, and the New River is one of the nation's American Heritage Rivers. In 1975, North Carolina designated a 26.5-mile (42.6 km) segment of the river as \"New River State Scenic River\", by including it in the state's Natural and Scenic Rivers System.[20][21] The segment was added to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System the following year.\nThe quality of the surface water resources of the New River has been studied in recent years by both the State of West Virginia and New River Gorge Park Resource Management staff. Data from these studies suggest the presence of metals, organic contaminants and influx of raw sewage are common in many tributaries of the New River. Metals contamination, resulting from mining activities and or urban surface flows, are present in most tributaries. Other sources of pollutants within park boundaries include unlined landfills, illegal dumps, pesticide sprayed directly into the New River, agricultural runoff, road salt runoff, direct discharge of residential sewage, inadequate municipal sewage treatment facilities, recreation waste streams, and industrial discharges. Pollution of rural streams by fecal coliform bacteria is a widespread issue. Since fecal coliform bacteria live in the gut of warm-blooded animals, fecal contamination of rural streams can come not only from humans, but also from livestock, pets, and wildlife (including birds). Several research efforts have been made to understand the role of these various potential sources of bacteria. One of these studies was conducted in New River Gorge by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service. The results indicate that human-caused wastewater pollution is present in each of the four New River Gorge tributaries sampled. The report also found other sources of contamination in some streams.[13]\nMost of the original deciduous forest stands and understory species have been impacted by past and current activities associated with timbering, mining, agriculture, transportation, utilities, and the exclusion of fire. Internal development projects, increasing recreational activities, and expanding commercial and residential influences on the boundary continue to put pressure on a highly fragmented base resource. Power lines and rights-of-way present additional problems. There is currently only limited information on all such areas throughout the park. Right-of-ways are routinely maintained with herbicides application or mechanically treated. There are currently no Special Use Permits in place to regulate this activity. Herbicides are managed through the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program. The park lies directly in the path of the leading edge of gypsy moth infestation. Baseline data on the condition of resources, which would be the indicators of the effects of defoliation, does not exist. Critical documents, such as the Environmental Assessment for gypsy moth management, require detailed information and hard scientific data in order to justify management actions.[13]\nMany areas within New River Gorge have been impacted by either strip or deep mining for coal, as well as by oil and gas operations. The park has completed an Abandoned Mine Lands Inventory (AML Inventory) that identifies 115 sites that are abandoned. Many of these sites were abandoned prior to the 1977 Surface Mining Reclamation Act (SMCRA), and are completely or partially unreclaimed. Since 1987, the National Park Service and the Office of Surface Mining (OSM) have worked together to mitigate the most severe safety hazards identified on this inventory.[13]\nAir pollution sources resulting from activities within the park includes windblown soil and dust from construction activities, smoke from residential wood burning, automobile emissions, and forest fires. A significant issue for the park is solid waste management. Hundreds of illegal dumps and roadside trash create both aesthetic and health and safety problems. Hazardous waste is also an issue. The area has active rail lines and abandoned mine operations. There is great potential for hazardous material spills to occur within the gorge. Also, some potential development sites within the New River Gorge have been surveyed during preliminary development concept planning. Asbestos has been found in several historic structures within the park, and this has lengthened the time and costs involved in renovation of these buildings.[13]\nOver time, the New River Gorge has provided a refuge for plants and animals as habitats have shifted with changing weather patterns. As global climate change progresses, the New River Gorge will provide critical habitat for species displaced from warmer climates.[13]\nVariant names[edit]\nAccording to the Geographic Names Information System, the New River has also been known as:\nConhaway River\nGreat Konhaway River\nKanawha River\nKunhaway River\nMon-don-ga-cha-te\nWood River\nWood's River\nWoods River\nThe New River in the New River Gorge.\nSee also[edit]\nNew River Gorge National Park and Preserve\nNew River Gorge Bridge\nSandstone, West Virginia\nList of North Carolina rivers\nList of Virginia rivers\nList of West Virginia rivers\nReferences[edit]\nCitations[edit]\n^ a b U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: New River\n^ \"accessed 2011-06-16\" (PDF). Retrieved September 14, 2013.\n^ \"accessed 2011-06-16\" (PDF). Retrieved September 14, 2013.\n^ United States Geological Survey; USGS 03176500 NEW RIVER AT GLEN LYN, VA; retrieved April 19, 2008.\n^ \"A History of The Middle New River Settlements and Contiguous Territory\". Retrieved September 8, 2015.\n^ a b c Frye, Keith (1986). Roadside Geology of Virginia. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press. pp. x + 278.\n^ \"WVGES Geology: Geology of the New River Gorge\". www.wvgs.wvnet.edu. Retrieved July 31, 2019.\n^ Box 246, Mailing Address: P. O.; Jean, 104 Main Street Glen; Us, WV 25846 Phone:465-0508 Contact. \"The New River: Fact or Fiction - New River Gorge National River (U.S. National Park Service)\". www.nps.gov. Retrieved July 31, 2019.\n^ a b Strausbaugh, P.D. & E.L. Core (1978). Flora of West Virginia (Second ed.). Morgantown, West Virginia: Seneca Books, Inc. pp. xl + 1079.\n^ The non-automotive Royal Gorge Bridge in Colorado, USA, a suspension bridge, has a higher deck than the New River Gorge Bridge, at 1,053 ft (321 m) above the Arkansas River.\n^ \"New River\". Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. Retrieved October 10, 2017.\n^ a b \"New River History\". Radford University. Retrieved October 10, 2017.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l This article incorporates public domain material from the National Park Service document: \"New River Gorge National River\". Retrieved October 10, 2017.\n^ \"New River Gorge: Natural Features & Ecosystems - New River Gorge National River (U.S. National Park Service)\". US National Park Service. Retrieved October 11, 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n^ \"\"Time Trail, West Virginia\" September 1997 Programs\". West Virginia Division of Culture and History. Retrieved June 4, 2010.\n^ Gary Jennings, \"An Indian Captivity,\" American Heritage Magazine, August 1968, Vol. 19, Issue 5.\n^ \"\"New River Gorge: Places\"\". National Park Service. Retrieved October 10, 2017.\n^ \"\"New River Gorge National River\"\" (PDF). National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior, 2008. Retrieved October 10, 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n^ \"Climbing at New River Gorge (National Park Service)\".\n^ \"Size of the North Carolina State Parks System\" (PDF). North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation. January 1, 2011. pp. 1–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 6, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2011.\n^ \"Directory of State Parks and Recreation Areas\" (PDF). North Carolina Office of Administrative Hearings. May 1, 2010. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2011. Retrieved May 20, 2011.\nFurther reading[edit]\nAdams, Noah (2001). Far Appalachia: Following the New River North. Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-385-32010-8. provides an informal, personal account of the river's natural history and local culture\nDeLorme Atlas & Gazetteer of North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia.\nRice, Otis K. (1984), History of the New River Gorge Area, West Virginia Institute of Technology.\nExternal links[edit]\nWikimedia Commons has media related to New River (Kanawha River tributary).\n\"Fishing in the New River\". National Park Service.\nGeology of the New River Gorge in West Virginia\nv\nt\ne\nAmerican Heritage Rivers\nRivers\nBlackstone and Woonasquatucket\nConnecticut\nCuyahoga\nDetroit\nHanalei\nHudson\nLower Mississippi\nPotomac\nNew\nRio Grande\nSt. Johns\nUpper Mississippi\nUpper Susquehanna and Lackawanna\nWillamette\nv\nt\ne\nProtected areas of North Carolina\nFederal\nNational Parks\nGreat Smoky Mountains\nNational Historic Sites\nCarl Sandburg Home\nFort Raleigh\nNational Memorials\nWright Brothers\nNational Military Parks\nGuilford Courthouse\nNational Battlefields\nMoores Creek\nNational Parkways\nBlue Ridge Parkway\n(Crabtree Falls\nCraggy Gardens\nCumberland Knob\nDoughton Park\nE.B. Jeffress Park\nJulian Price Memorial Park\nLinville Falls\nMoses H. Cone Memorial Park\nMount Pisgah\nWaterrock Knob)\nNational Trails\nAppalachian Trail\nOvermountain Victory National Historic Trail\nNational Seashores\nCape Hatteras\nCape Lookout\nNational Marine Sanctuary\nMonitor\nNational Estuarine\nResearch Reserve\nCurrituck Banks\nRachel Carson\nMasonboro Island\nZeke’s Island\nNational Forests\nCherokee\nCroatan\nNantahala\nPisgah\nUwharrie\nNational Wildlife Refuges\nAlligator River\nCedar Island\nCurrituck\nGreat Dismal Swamp\nMackay Island\nMattamuskeet\nMountain Bogs\nPea Island\nPee Dee\nPocosin Lakes\nRoanoke River\nSwanquarter\nWilderness Areas\nBirkhead Mountains\nCatfish Lake South\nEllicott Rock\nJoyce Kilmer-Slickrock\nLinville Gorge\nMiddle Prong\nPocosin\nPond Pine\nSheep Ridge\nShining Rock\nSouthern Nantahala\nSwanquarter\nWilderness Study Areas\nCraggy Mountain\nHarper Creek\nLost Cove\nOverflow\nSnowbird\nWild and Scenic Rivers\nChattooga River\nHorsepasture River\nLumber River\nNew River\nWilson Creek\nState\nState Parks\nCarolina Beach\nCarvers Creek\nChimney Rock\nCliffs of the Neuse\nCrowders Mountain\nDismal Swamp\nElk Knob\nEno River\nFort Macon\nGoose Creek\nGorges\nGrandfather Mountain\nHammocks Beach\nHanging Rock\nHaw River\nJockey's Ridge\nJones Lake\nLake James\nLake Norman\nLake Waccamaw\nLumber River\nMayo River\nMedoc Mountain\nMerchants Millpond\nMorrow Mountain\nMount Mitchell\nNew River\nPettigrew\nPilot Mountain\nPisgah View\nRaven Rock\nSingletary Lake\nSouth Mountains\nStone Mountain\nWilliam B. Umstead\nState Recreation Areas\nFalls Lake\nFort Fisher\nJordan Lake\nKerr Lake\nState Natural Areas\nHemlock Bluffs\nLea Island\nMasonboro Island\nMount Jefferson\nOcconeechee Mountain\nTheodore Roosevelt\nWeymouth Woods\nSee also List of North Carolina State Natural Areas\nState Lakes\nBay Tree Lake\nJones Lake\nLake Phelps\nSalters Lake\nSingletary Lake\nLake Waccamaw\nWhite Lake\nState Trails\nDan River\nDeep River\nEast Coast Greenway\nFonta Flora\nFrench Broad River\nHickory Nut Gorge\nMountains-to-Sea\nNorthern Peaks\nOvermountain Victory\nWilderness Gateway\nYadkin River\nState Rivers\nHorsepasture River\nLinville River\nLumber River\nNew River\nState Forests\nBladen Lakes\nDuPont\nHeadwaters\nEducational State Forests\nClemmons\nHolmes\nJordan Lake\nMountain Island\nRendezvous Mountain\nTurnbull Creek\nTuttle\nState Historic Sites\nAlamance Battleground\nCharles B. Aycock Birthplace\nHistoric Bath\nBennett Place\nBentonville Battleground\nBrunswick Town / Fort Anderson\nC.S.S. Neuse and Governor Caswell Memorial\nCharlotte Hawkins Brown Memorial\nDuke Homestead\nHistoric Edenton\nFort Dobbs\nFort Fisher\nHistoric Halifax\nHorne Creek Living Historical Farm\nHouse in the Horseshoe\nNorth Carolina Transportation Museum\nPresident James K. Polk Historic Site\nReed Gold Mine\nSomerset Place\nStagville\nState Capitol\nTown Creek Indian Mound\nTryon Palace Historic Sites & Gardens\nZebulon B. Vance Birthplace\nThomas Wolfe Memorial\nNC Coastal Reserve\nKitty Hawk Woods\nEmily and Richardson Preyer Buckridge\nBuxton Woods\nPermuda Island\nBald Head Woods\nBird Island\nOther\nNature centers\nList of nature centers in North Carolina\nAuthority control: National libraries\nUnited States\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_River_(Kanawha_River_tributary)&oldid=1031600188\"\nCategories:\nNew River (Kanawha River tributary)\nAmerican Heritage Rivers\nRivers of North Carolina\nRivers of Virginia\nRivers of West Virginia\nTributaries of the Kanawha River\nNew River Gorge National Park and Preserve\nProtected areas established in 1975\nWild and Scenic Rivers of the United States\nHidden categories:\nWikipedia articles incorporating text from the National Park Service\nUse mdy dates from February 2013\nArticles with short description\nShort description is different from Wikidata\nCoordinates on Wikidata\nCommons category link from Wikidata\nArticles with LCCN identifiers\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nIn other projects\nWikimedia Commons\nLanguages\nCebuano\nDeutsch\nFrançais\nمصرى\n日本語\nРусский\n中文\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 2 July 2021, at 14:30 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit 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{"content":"For other uses of the word, see Modernism (disambiguation). For the period in sociology beginning with industrialization, see Modernity.\nFor related terms, see Modern, contemporary, and postmodern.\nPhilosophical and art movement during the late 19th and early 20th century\nPablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). This proto-cubist work is considered a seminal influence on subsequent trends in modernist painting.\nFrank Lloyd Wright, Solomon Guggenheim Museum 1946–1959[1]\nModernism is both a philosophical movement and an art movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly emerging industrial world, including features such as urbanization, new technologies, and war. Artists attempted to depart from traditional forms of art, which they considered outdated or obsolete. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to \"Make it New\" was the touchstone of the movement's approach.\nModernist innovations included abstract art, the stream-of-consciousness novel, montage cinema, atonal and twelve-tone music, and divisionist painting. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism[a][2][3] and made use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[b][c][4] Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists also rejected religious belief.[5][d] A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness concerning artistic and social traditions, which often led to experimentation with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating works of art.[7]\nWhile some scholars see modernism continuing into the 21st century, others see it evolving into late modernism or high modernism.[8] Postmodernism is a departure from modernism and rejects its basic assumptions.[9][10][11]\nContents\n1 Definition\n2 Early history\n2.1 Origins\n2.2 The beginnings in the late nineteenth century\n3 Main period\n3.1 Early 20th century to 1930\n3.2 Modernism continues: 1930–1945\n4 After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)\n4.1 Introduction\n4.2 Theatre of the Absurd\n4.3 Pollock and abstract influences\n4.4 International figures from British art\n4.5 In the 1960s after abstract expressionism\n4.6 Pop art\n4.7 Minimalism\n4.7.1 Minimal music\n4.7.2 Postminimalism\n4.7.3 Collage, assemblage, installations\n4.7.4 Neo-Dada\n4.7.5 Performance and happenings\n4.7.6 Intermedia, multi-media\n4.7.7 Fluxus\n4.8 Avant-garde popular music\n4.9 Late period\n5 Modernism in Africa and Asia\n6 Differences between modernism and postmodernism\n7 Attack and criticism to modernism\n8 See also\n9 Footnotes\n10 References\n11 Sources\n12 Further reading\n13 External links\nDefinition[edit]\nSome commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.[12] More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.[e] From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end.\nAccording to Roger Griffin, modernism can be defined as a broad cultural, social, or political initiative, sustained by the ethos of \"the temporality of the new\". Modernism sought to restore, Griffin writes, a \"sense of sublime order and purpose to the contemporary world, thereby counteracting the (perceived) erosion of an overarching ‘nomos’, or ‘sacred canopy’, under the fragmenting and secularizing impact of modernity.\" Therefore, phenomena apparently unrelated to each other such as \"Expressionism, Futurism, vitalism, Theosophy, psychoanalysis, nudism, eugenics, utopian town planning and architecture, modern dance, Bolshevism, organic nationalism – and even the cult of self-sacrifice that sustained the hecatomb of the First World War – disclose a common cause and psychological matrix in the fight against (perceived) decadence.\" All of them embody bids to access a \"supra-personal experience of reality\", in which individuals believed they could transcend their own mortality, and eventually that they had ceased to be victims of history to become instead its creators.[14]\nEarly history[edit]\nOrigins[edit]\nEugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art\nAccording to one critic, modernism developed out of Romanticism's revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeois values: \"The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism.\"[a][2][3] While J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movement, as \"a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere\", he \"anticipated the French Impressionists\" and therefore modernism \"in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes.\"[16]\nA Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck. The modernists rejected realism.\nThe dominant trends of industrial Victorian England were opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, because of their \"opposition to technical skill without inspiration.\"[17]: 815 They were influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.[17]: 816 Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: \"There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists, the German Nazarenes). The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (1832–1883), with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough.\"[18] Rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55)[19] and later Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), both of whom had significant influence on existentialism and nihilism.[20]: 120 \nHowever, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[21] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[22] and King's Cross station (1852).[23] These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from 1837,[24] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.[25]\nDespite continuing technological advances, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack in the nineteenth century. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. Early in the century, the philosopher Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (The World as Will and Representation, 1819) had called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.[19] Two of the most significant thinkers of the mid nineteenth century were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), author of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–1883), author of Das Kapital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as \"lower animals\" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality.[26] Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free.[27]\nOdilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, Art Institute of Chicago\nThe beginnings in the late nineteenth century[edit]\nHistorians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831–1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.[12] Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–1886 with Seurat's Divisionism, the \"dots\" used to paint A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) \"the first real Modernist\",[28] though he also wrote, \"What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture).\"[18] The poet Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), and Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857.\nIn the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, beginning in the 1860s. The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement. The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891) Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873), Paul Verlaine (1844–1896), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898), and Paul Valéry (1871–1945). The symbolists \"stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy,\" and were especially interested in \"the musical properties of language.\"[29]\nCabaret, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the Black Cat in Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.[30]\nHenri Matisse, Le bonheur de vivre, 1905–06, Barnes Foundation, Merion, PA. An early Fauvist masterpiece.\nInfluential in the early days of modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud's first major work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer, 1895). Central to Freud's thinking is the idea \"of the primacy of the unconscious mind in mental life,\" so that all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. Freud's description of subjective states involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions derived from social values.[17]: 538 \nHenri Matisse, The Dance, 1910, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with \"wild\", multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Henri Matisse's second version of The Dance signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.[31]\nFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was another major precursor of modernism,[32] with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the \"will to power\" (Wille zur Macht), was of central importance: \"Nietzsche often identified life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an instinct for growth and durability.\"[33][34] Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time.[20]: 131 His work on time and consciousness \"had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists,\" especially those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941).[35] Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which \"brings about the creative evolution of everything.\"[20]: 132 His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.[20]: 132 \nImportant literary precursors of modernism were Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), who wrote the novels Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880);[36] Walt Whitman (1819–1892), who published the poetry collection Leaves of Grass (1855–1891); and August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream Play (1902) and The Ghost Sonata (1907). Henry James has also been suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early as The Portrait of a Lady (1881).[37]\nOut of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works in the first decade of the 20th century, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract with the general public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These \"Modernist\" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910.\nMain period[edit]\nFrank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Mill Run, Pennsylvania (1937). Fallingwater was one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937).\nEarly 20th century to 1930[edit]\nPalais Stoclet (1905-1911) by modernist architect Josef Hoffmann\nPablo Picasso, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, 1910, Art Institute of Chicago\nAn important aspect of modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[b][c]\nPiet Mondrian, View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, Domburg, 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, Museum of Modern Art, New York City\nThe Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in Madrid. The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with the closeup of the modern art tower.\nT. S. Eliot made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including: \"[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously.\"[40] However, the relationship of Modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates: \"There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair.\"[4]\nAn example of how Modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music of the composer Arnold Schoenberg. On the one hand Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half. He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows. Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be traced back in the work of earlier composers, such as Franz Liszt,[41] Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Max Reger.[42][43] Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career.\nIn the world of art, in the first decade of the 20th century, young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings,[44][45] though the impressionist Monet had already been innovative in his use of perspective.[46] In 1907, as Picasso was painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka was writing Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F sharp minor (1908), his first composition without a tonal centre.\nA primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[47] In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form; instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.[48] Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris (held 21 April – 13 June). Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, Robert Delaunay, Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond. Also in 1911, Kandinsky painted Bild mit Kreis (Picture with a Circle), which he later called the first abstract painting.[49]: 167 In 1912, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto, Du \"Cubisme\", published in time for the Salon de la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a Horse) and Danseuse au Café (Dancer in a Café). Albert Gleizes painted and exhibited his Les Baigneuses (The Bathers) and his monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing). This work, along with La Ville de Paris (City of Paris) by Robert Delaunay, was the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.[50]\nIn 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and August Macke. However, the term \"Expressionism\" did not firmly establish itself until 1913.[49]: 274 Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,[f] most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors of the movement were not German. Furthermore, there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.\nPortrait of Eduard Kosmack (1910) by Egon Schiele\nLe Corbusier, The Villa Savoye in Poissy (1928–1931)\nExpressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it \"overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism and Dada.\"[53] Richard Murphy also comments: \"the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging expressionists\" such as the novelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried Benn, and novelist Alfred Döblin were simultaneously the most vociferous anti-expressionists.[54]: 43 What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early 20th century mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that \"one of the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation.\"[54]: 43 More explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.[54]: 43–48 [55] There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre, of which Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen. They looked back to Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgical experiments. Oskar Kokoschka's Murderer, the Hope of Women was the first fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.[56] The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays. The first full-length Expressionist play was The Son by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916.[57]\nFuturism is yet another modernist movement.[58] In 1909, the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro published F. T. Marinetti's first manifesto. Soon afterwards a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on Marx and Engels' famous \"Communist Manifesto\" (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to \"little magazines\" which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism.\nJean Metzinger, 1913, En Canot (Im Boot), oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm (57.5 in × 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni, S.V.U. Mánes, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by Georg Muche at the Galerie Der Sturm, confiscated by the Nazis circa 1936–1937, displayed at the Degenerate Art show in Munich, and missing ever since.[59]\nAbstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) and Edvard Munch (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art.[60] Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.[61] Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism.[62]\nModernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright[63] and Le Corbusier,[64] believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as \"machines for living in\", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.[65] Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms.[66] The skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building, and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built 1890–91, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, is among the first skyscrapers in the world.[67] Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high-rise architecture.[68] Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.\nAndré Masson, Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, early example of Surrealism\nIn 1913—which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl's Ideas, physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the \"first futurist opera\", Mikhail Matyushin's Victory over the Sun—another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrifice, and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time though modernism was still \"progressive\", increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence À la recherche du temps perdu (1913–1927) (In Search of Lost Time). This is often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust \"is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness\" and that he \"was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel.\"[69]\nStream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation, and it has been suggested that Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931) was the first to make full use of it in his short story \"Leutnant Gustl\" (\"None but the Brave\") (1900).[70] Dorothy Richardson was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel sequence Pilgrimage (1915–1967).[g] The other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) and Italo Svevo in La coscienza di Zeno (1923).[72]\nHowever, with the coming of the Great War of 1914–1918 and the Russian Revolution of 1917, the world was drastically changed and doubt cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: prior to 1914 it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century now had radically changed the nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare. The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, described in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became more generally accepted in the 1920s.\nIn literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant-Garde and Kitsch.[73] Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture \"kitsch\", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism.\nSome modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In Russia after the 1917 Revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included Russian Futurism. However others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population.[73]\nSurrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or \"the avant-garde of Modernism\".[74] The word \"surrealist\" was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos,[75] Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Miró, and Marcel Duchamp.[76]\nBy 1930, Modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time Modernism itself had changed.\nModernism continues: 1930–1945[edit]\nModernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg worked on Moses und Aron, one of the first operas to make use of the twelve-tone technique,[77] Pablo Picasso painted in 1937 Guernica, his cubist condemnation of fascism, while in 1939 James Joyce pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with Finnegans Wake. Also by 1930 Modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, The New Yorker magazine began publishing work, influenced by Modernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker,[78] Robert Benchley, E. B. White, S. J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others.[79] Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in America.[80] Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1916, is the famous London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston.[81]\nOne of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children.\nLondon Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston. This is the modern version (with minor modifications) of one that was first used in 1916.\nAnother strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism (which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions) and the neoclassicism of the 1920s (as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems), the rise of fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist form of Marxism. There were, however, also modernists explicitly of 'the right', including Salvador Dalí, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.[82]\nSignificant Modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil, and Dorothy Richardson. The American Modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant Modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, Samuel Beckett published his first major work, the novel Murphy (1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. This is written in a largely idiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.[83] In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British Modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden. European Modernist poets include Federico García Lorca, Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.\nJames Joyce statue on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbon\nThe Modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia. In 1930 composer Dimitri Shostakovich's (1906–1975) opera The Nose was premiered, in which he uses a montage of different styles, including folk music, popular song and atonality. Amongst his influences was Alban Berg's (1985–1935) opera Wozzeck (1925), which \"had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad.\"[84] However, from 1932 Socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union,[85] and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.[86] Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, Modernist opera, Lulu, which premiered in 1937. Berg's Violin Concerto was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich, other composers faced difficulties in this period.\nIn Germany Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his Modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.[87] His major works from this period are a Violin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), and a Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935) and the Chamber Symphony No. 2 in E♭ minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).[87] During this time Hungarian Modernist Béla Bartók (1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) and the Divertimento for String Orchestra (1939), String Quartet No. 5 (1934), and No. 6 (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of fascism in Hungary.[87] Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) continued writing in his neoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like the Symphony of Psalms (1930), Symphony in C (1940) and Symphony in Three Movements (1945). He also emigrated to the US because of World War II. Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where he composed his famous Quatuor pour la fin du temps (\"Quartet for the End of Time\"). The quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.[88]\nIn painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, modernism was defined by Surrealism, late Cubism, Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, and Modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene. In Germany, Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. Modernism is defined in Latin America by painters Joaquín Torres-García from Uruguay and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado, and Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages.\nDiego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, Man at the Crossroads, in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. Frida Kahlo's works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition, which were often bloody and violent. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the magic realism movement in literature.\nPolitical activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade.\nDuring the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.[89] On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was bombed by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo Picasso painted his mural-sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.\nPablo Picasso's Guernica, 1937, protest against fascism\nDuring the Great Depression of the 1930s and through the years of World War II, American art was characterized by social realism and American Scene painting, in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.\nAmerican Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[90] However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.\nThe situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.\nArshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham, Gorky created biomorphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.\nAfter World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)[edit]\nSee also: Late modernism\nIntroduction[edit]\nWhile The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature states that modernism ended by c. 1939[91] with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred.\"[92] Clement Greenberg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts,[18] but with regard to music, Paul Griffiths notes that, while Modernism \"seemed to be a spent force\" by the late 1920s, after World War II, \"a new generation of composers—Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis\" revived modernism\".[93] In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they were no longer producing major works. The term \"late modernism\" is also sometimes applied to Modernist works published after 1930.[94][95] Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important Modernist poem Briggflatts in 1965. In addition, Hermann Broch's The Death of Virgil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus in 1947. Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later Modernist\".[96] Beckett is a writer with roots in the expressionist tradition of Modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), Waiting for Godot (1953), Happy Days (1961), and Rockaby (1981). The terms \"minimalist\" and \"post-Modernist\" have also been applied to his later works.[97] The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (born 1936) are among the writers in the second half of the 20th century who have been described as late modernists.[98]\nMore recently the term \"late modernism\" has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.[99]\nThe postwar period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world) the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and Modernist artists, writers, and poets had fled Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who didn't flee perished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France and survived.\nThe 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a Modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, surrealism, Joan Miró, cubism, Fauvism, and early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors.\nParis, moreover, recaptured much of its luster in the 1950s and 60s as the center of a machine art florescence, with both of the leading machine art sculptors Jean Tinguely and Nicolas Schöffer having moved there to launch their careers—and which florescence, in light of the technocentric character of modern life, may well have a particularly long lasting influence.[100]\nTheatre of the Absurd[edit]\nSamuel Beckett's En attendant Godot, (Waiting for Godot) Festival d'Avignon, 1978\nThe term \"Theatre of the Absurd\" is applied to plays, written primarily by Europeans, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.[101] While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett.\nCritic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay \"Theatre of the Absurd\". He related these plays based on a broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camus uses the term in his 1942 essay, The Myth of Sisyphus.[102] The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man's reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the \"well-made play\".\nPlaywrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), Eugène Ionesco (1909–1994), Jean Genet (1910–1986), Harold Pinter (1930–2008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937), Alexander Vvedensky (1904–1941), Daniil Kharms (1905–1942), Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–1990), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929), Fernando Arrabal (born 1932), Václav Havel (1936–2011) and Edward Albee (1928–2016).\nJackson Pollock, Blue Poles, 1952, National Gallery of Australia\nPollock and abstract influences[edit]\nDuring the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art is made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and nonimagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art. The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin,[103] Griselda Pollock[104] and Catherine de Zegher[105] critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history.\nInternational figures from British art[edit]\nHenry Moore (1898–1986) emerged after World War II as Britain's leading sculptor. He was best known for his semi-abstract monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.\nHenry Moore, Reclining Figure (1957). In front of the Kunsthaus Zürich, Switzerland.\nIn the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the UNESCO building in Paris in 1958.[106] With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives taking place around the world, notably a prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the Forte di Belvedere overlooking Florence. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. On the campus of the University of Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by Enrico Fermi achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's Nuclear Energy was unveiled.[107][108] Also in Chicago, Moore commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named Man Enters the Cosmos (1980), which was commissioned to recognise the space exploration program.[109]\nThe \"London School\" of figurative painters, including Francis Bacon (1909–1992), Lucian Freud (1922–2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kossoff (born 1926), and Michael Andrews (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition.[110]\nFrancis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.[111] His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.[112] His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward-looking, and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed.[113]\nLucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly impastoed portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.[114][115][116][117] His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model.[118] According to William Grimes of The New York Times, \"Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl with a White Dog (1951–1952),[119] Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade. Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist's ruthless inspection.\"[114]\nIn the 1960s after abstract expressionism[edit]\nMain articles: Post-painterly abstraction, Color field, Lyrical abstraction, Arte Povera, Process art, and Western painting\nIn abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly abstraction when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. color field painting, hard-edge painting and lyrical abstraction[120] emerged as radical new directions.\nBy the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera[121] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.[121] Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Colin McCahon, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Pat Lipsky, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[122]\nPop art[edit]\nEduardo Paolozzi. I was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947) is considered the initial standard bearer of \"pop art\" and first to display the word \"pop\".\nMain articles: Pop art and Western painting\nIn 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term \"Pop Art\" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated the consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and the iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi (who created the groundbreaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) are considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Ben-Day dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.\nMinimalism[edit]\nMain articles: Minimalism, Minimal music, Literary minimalism, Postminimalism, and 20th-century Western painting\nMinimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect.\nAs a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[123] It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to Postminimal art practices. By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in the geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich,[124] the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced Modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement.\nHal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[125] examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.[125] He argues that minimalism is not a \"dead end\" of Modernism, but a \"paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today.\"[125]\nMinimal music[edit]\nThe terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as systems music. The term 'minimal music' is generally used to describe a style of music that developed in America in the late 1960s and 1970s; and that was initially connected with the composers.[126] The minimalism movement originally involved some composers, and other lesser known pioneers included Pauline Oliveros, Phill Niblock, and Richard Maxfield. In Europe, the music of Louis Andriessen, Karel Goeyvaerts, Michael Nyman, Howard Skempton, Eliane Radigue, Gavin Bryars, Steve Martland, Henryk Górecki, Arvo Pärt and John Tavener.\nPostminimalism[edit]\nSmithson's Spiral Jetty from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt.\nIn the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten[121] coined the term \"postminimalism\" to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Barry Le Va, and others. Other minimalists including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce late Modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers.\nSince then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles, and the label \"Postmodern\" has been attached to them.\nCollage, assemblage, installations[edit]\nMain articles: Collage, Assemblage (art), and Installation art\nRelated to abstract expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplifies this trend. His \"combines\" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects.\nNeo-Dada[edit]\nMain article: Neo-Dada\nIn the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp submitted for exhibition a urinal as a sculpture.[127] He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as \"readymades\". Fountain was a urinal signed with the pseudonym \"R. Mutt\", the exhibition of which shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4′33″, which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's Erased de Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. In choosing \"an ordinary article of life\" and creating \"a new thought for that object\" Duchamp invited onlookers to view Fountain as a sculpture.[128]\nMarcel Duchamp famously gave up \"art\" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.[129]\nSteven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between Modernism and Postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high Modernism.[130]\nPerformance and happenings[edit]\nMain articles: Performance art, Happening, and Fluxus\nYves Klein in France, and Carolee Schneemann (pictured), Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman, and Yoko Ono in New York City were pioneers of performance based works of art, that often entailed nudity.[131]\nDuring the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono in New York City, and Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik in Germany were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theatre with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer, especially in their piece Paradise Now. The Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas.\nThese performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism. Images of Schneeman's performances of pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often seen photographed while performing her piece Interior Scroll. However, according to modernist philosophy surrounding performance art, it is cross-purposes to publish images of her performing this piece, for performance artists reject publication entirely: the performance itself is the medium. Thus, other media cannot illustrate performance art; performance is momentary, evanescent, and personal, not for capturing; representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium. The artists deny that recordings illustrate the medium of performance as art.\nDuring the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings, mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprow—who first used the term in 1958,[132] Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.[133]\nIntermedia, multi-media[edit]\nMain article: Intermedia\nAnother trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia is a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes \"Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms,\" in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[134] One of the most common forms of \"multi-media art\" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.\nFluxus[edit]\nMain article: Fluxus\nFluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–1978), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at The New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins.\nFluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.\nAndreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for Postmodernism as \"either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement—as it were, postmodernism's sublime.\"[135] Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against \"the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War.\"[135]\nAvant-garde popular music[edit]\nMain article: Avant-pop\nModernism had an uneasy relationship with popular forms of music (both in form and aesthetic) while rejecting popular culture.[136] Despite this, Stravinsky used jazz idioms on his pieces like \"Ragtime\" from his 1918 theatrical work Histoire du Soldat and 1945's Ebony Concerto.[137]\nIn the 1960s, as popular music began to gain cultural importance and question its status as commercial entertainment, musicians began to look to the post-war avant-garde for inspiration.[138] In 1959, music producer Joe Meek recorded I Hear a New World (1960), which Tiny Mix Tapes' Jonathan Patrick calls a \"seminal moment in both electronic music and avant-pop history [...] a collection of dreamy pop vignettes, adorned with dubby echoes and tape-warped sonic tendrils\" which would be largely ignored at the time.[139] Other early avant-pop productions included the Beatles's 1966 song \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", which incorporated techniques from musique concrète, avant-garde composition, Indian music, and electro-acoustic sound manipulation into a 3-minute pop format, and the Velvet Underground's integration of La Monte Young's minimalist and drone music ideas, beat poetry, and 1960s pop art.[138]\nLate period[edit]\nMain article: Late modernism\nBrice Marden, Vine, 1992–93, oil on linen, 240 by 260 cm (8 by 8+1⁄2 ft), Museum of Modern Art, New York\nThe continuation of abstract expressionism, color field painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism, process art, pop art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century Modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continued through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.[140][141][142]\nAt the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Pat Lipsky, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture.\nModernism in Africa and Asia[edit]\nSee also: Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism and Hanshinkan Modernism\nPeter Kalliney suggests that \"Modernist concepts, especially aesthetic autonomy, were fundamental to the literature of decolonization in anglophone Africa.\"[143] In his opinion, Rajat Neogy, Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka, were among the writers who \"repurposed modernist versions of aesthetic autonomy to declare their freedom from colonial bondage, from systems of racial discrimination, and even from the new postcolonial state\".[144]\nThe terms \"modernism\" and \"modernist\", according to scholar William J. Tyler, \"have only recently become part of the standard discourse in English on modern Japanese literature and doubts concerning their authenticity vis-a-vis Western European modernism remain\". Tyler finds this odd, given \"the decidedly modern prose\" of such \"well-known Japanese writers as Kawabata Yasunari, Nagai Kafu, and Jun'ichirō Tanizaki\". However, \"scholars in the visual and fine arts, architecture, and poetry readily embraced \"modanizumu\" as a key concept for describing and analyzing Japanese culture in the 1920s and 1930s\".[145] In 1924, various young Japanese writers, including Kawabata and Riichi Yokomitsu started a literary journal Bungei Jidai (\"The Artistic Age\"). This journal was \"part of an 'art for art's sake' movement, influenced by European Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, and other modernist styles\".[146]\nJapanese modernist architect Kenzō Tange (1913–2005) was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism, and designing major buildings on five continents. Tange was also an influential patron of the Metabolist movement. He said: \"It was, I believe, around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call structuralism\",[147] He was influenced from an early age by the Swiss modernist, Le Corbusier, Tange gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the competition for the design of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park.\nIn China the \"New Sensationists\" (新感觉派, Xīn Gǎnjué Pài) were a group of writers based in Shanghai who in the 1930s and 1940s were influenced, to varying degrees, by Western and Japanese modernism. They wrote fiction that was more concerned with the unconscious and with aesthetics than with politics or social problems. Among these writers were Mu Shiying and Shi Zhecun.\nIn India, the Progressive Artists' Group was a group of modern artists, mainly based in Mumbai, India formed in 1947. Though it lacked any particular style, it synthesised Indian art with European and North America influences from the first half of the 20th Century, including Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Expressionism.\nDifferences between modernism and postmodernism[edit]\nBy the early 1980s the Postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various conceptual and intermedia formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work as a \"term introduced in the 1970s\",[148] while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism \"ceding its predominance to postmodernism\" as early as 1939.[91] However, dates are highly debatable, especially as according to Andreas Huyssen: \"one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism.\"[149] This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late Modernism continues.[149]\nModernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.[150][151][152]\nPostmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise Modernism \"after the fact\" is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions.[153]\nIn a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also postmodern. Those elements of Modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only Modernist.[154]\nAttack and criticism to modernism[edit]\nFranz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of \"Entartete Kunst\" (\"degenerate art\") in Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937.\nModernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in Modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation.\nFrom 1932, socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union;[85] it had previously endorsed Futurism and Constructivism. The Nazi government of Germany deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as \"Jewish\" (see Antisemitism) and \"Negro\".[155] The Nazis exhibited Modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled \"Degenerate Art\". Accusations of \"formalism\" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many modernists of the postwar generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the \"canary in the coal mine\", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.[156]\nIn fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s. Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and later on in music videos. Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future.[157][158]\nIn 2008, Janet Bennett published Modernity and Its Critics through The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory.[159] Merging of consumer and high versions of Modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of \"Modernism\". First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite Modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now \"post avant-garde\", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism.\n\"Anti-modern\" or \"counter-modern\" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and emergent effects.\nSome traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject modernism generally as the product of \"an epoch of false money allied with false culture\".[160]\nIn some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post-Renaissance art (c. 1400 to c. 1900). Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and Postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within Modern Art.\nSee also[edit]\nAmerican modernism\nAustralian modernism\nContemporary classical music\nContemporary French literature\nContemporary literature\nExperimental film\nExperimental literature\nExperimental music\nHistory of theatre\nHistory of classical music traditions § 20th century music\nIslamic modernism\nLiterary modernism\nList of modernist writers\nList of modernist women writers\nTwentieth-century English literature\nModern Art Week in Brazil\nModern architecture\nModernism (music)\nModernismo\nModernist film\nModernist poetry\nModernist poetry in English\nPostmodern art\nRemodernism\nRussian avant-garde\n20th-century classical music\nTheosophy and visual arts\nFootnotes[edit]\n^ a b The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view. Its artistic strategy was the self-conscious overturning of the conventions of bourgeois realism ... the antirationalist, antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism ... the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism, taught us that linearity, rationality, consciousness, cause and effect, naïve illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story.[15]\n^ a b Each of the types of repetition that we have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history of artistic creativity; plagiarism, quotation, parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition.\nMuch art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the \"modern\" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of \"creation from nothingness,\" with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.[38]\n^ a b The Modernist movement which dominated art, music, letters during the first half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of custodianship. Stravinsky's genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He took from Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi. He mimed Tchaikovsky and Gounod, the Beethoven piano sonatas, the symphonies of Haydn, the operas of Pergolesi and Glinka. He incorporated Debussy and Webern into his own idiom. In each instance the listener was meant to recognize the source, to grasp the intent of a transformation which left salient aspects of the original intact.\nThe history of Picasso is marked by retrospection. The explicit variations on classical pastoral themes, the citations from and pastiches of Rembrandt, Goya, Velázquez, Manet, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picasso's sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development of the arts from the Minoan to Cézanne.\nIn 20th-century literature, the elements of reprise have been obsessive, and they have organized precisely those texts which at first seemed most revolutionary. The Waste Land, Ulysses, Pound's Cantos are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt to be in danger of dissolution. The long sequence of imitations, translations, masked quotations, and explicit historical paintings in Robert Lowell's History has carried the same technique into the 1970s. [...] In Modernism collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition. Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, Eliot, Joyce, Pound—the 'makers of the new'—have been neo-classics, often as observant of canonic precedent as their 17th-century forebears.[39]\n^ [James] Joyce's Ulysses is a comedy not divine – ending, like Dante's, in the vision of a God whose will is our peace – but human all-too-human ... .[6]\n^ In the twentieth century, the social processes that bring this maelstrom into being, and keep it in a state of perpetual becoming, have come to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have come to be loosely grouped together under the name of 'modernism'.[13]\n^ Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the English Vorticism: \"The Fauvist movement has been compared to German Expressionism, both projecting brilliant colors and spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to the same late nineteenth-century sources, especially Van Gogh.[51][52]\n^ May Sinclair first applied the term \"stream of consciousness\" in a literary context, in 1918 in her discussion of Richardson's stylistic innovations in a review of Leutnant Gustl and Pilgrimage.[71]\nReferences[edit]\n^ \"Modernist architecture: 30 stunning examples\". 2 September 2016.\n^ a b Graff, Gerald (Winter 1973). \"The myth of the Postmodernist breakthrough\". TriQuarterly. Vol. 26. pp. 383–417. CS1 maint: date and year (link)\n^ a b Graff, Gerald (Spring 1975). \"Babbitt at the abyss: The social context of postmodern American fiction\". TriQuarterly. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 541–545.\n^ a b c \"Oxford Music\". Oxford Music Online.\n^ Rebecca Rischin. For the End of Time: The Story of the Messiaen Quartet. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003, p. 5.\n^ Lewis, Helena. Dada Turns Red. 1990. University of Edinburgh Press. A history of the uneasy relations between Surrealists and Communists from the 1920s through the 1950s.\n^ Fineman, Mia, The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates., Slate, 8 June 2005\n^ a b J. H. Dettmar, \"Modernism\", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, ed. David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.\n^ \"Modernism\", in The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. Oxford Reference Online.\n^ Paul Griffiths, \"Modernism\", The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002.\n^ Cheryl Hindrichs, \"Late Modernism, 1928–1945: Criticism and Theory\", Literature Compass, Volume 8, Issue 11, pp. 840–855, November 2011\n^ J. H. Dettmar, \"Modernism\", The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, ed. David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.\n^ Morris Dickstein, \"An Outsider to His Own Life\", Books, The New York Times, 3 August 1997.\n^ The Cambridge Companion to Irish Literature, ed. John Wilson Foster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.\n^ Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony Mellors; see also Prynne's publisher, Bloodaxe Books.\n^ Anthony Mellors, Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne\n^ Juliette Bessette (23 January 2018). \"The Machine as Art (in the 20th Century): An Introduction\". Arts. 7: 4. doi:10.3390/arts7010004.\n^ The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, Millennium Edition, Helicon 1999\n^ \"University of Glasgow, School of Modern Languages and Cultures\". Archived from the original on 23 August 2009.\n^ Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium (edited by C. Armstrong and C. de Zegher) MIT Press, 2006.\n^ Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007.\n^ De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.\n^ \"Moore, Henry\". UNESCO. Retrieved on 16 August 2008.\n^ Illinois Sesquicentennial Commission (1969) [2 December 1967]. \"Nuclear Energy sculpture\". Illinois; Guide & Gazetteer. University of Virginia; Rand-McNally. p. 199.\n^ Jane Beckett and Fiona Russell. Henry Moore: Space, Sculpture, Politics. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2003. p. 221.\n^ Inscribed on the plaque at the base of the sculpture.\n^ Walker, 219–225\n^ Martin Harrison, In Camera: Francis Bacon: Photography, Film and the Practice of Painting, London: Thames and Hudson, 2006, 7\n^ Ken Johnson (3 December 2015). \"Francis Bacon\".\n^ New York Times, \"Obituary\", 29 April 1992.\n^ a b William Grimes. \"Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who Redefined Portraiture, Is Dead at 88\". The New York Times. 21 July 2011\n^ Rimanelli, David (January 2012), \"Damien Hirst\", Artforum: \"With the recent death of Lucían Freud, some might argue that Hirst is now the greatest living British artist.\" Retrieved 28 October 2012.\n^ Also see Kennedy, Maev (21 December 2001), \"Palace unveils Freud's gift to Queen\", The Guardian, who calls Freud \"the artist regarded as the greatest living British painter\". Retrieved 28 October 2012.\n^ Darwent, Charles (28 November 1999), \"The 1990s in Review: Visual Arts\", The Independent, says \"Freud becomes the greatest living British artist after his Whitechapel show [of 1993]\". Retrieved 28 October 2012.\n^ \"Lucian Freud Stripped Bare\". The New York Times. 14 December 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2011.\n^ \"'Girl with a White Dog', Lucian Freud - Tate\". Tate.\n^ Aldrich, Larry. \"Young Lyrical Painters\", Art in America, v. 57, n. 6, November–December 1969, pp. 104–113.\n^ a b c Sarah Douglas, Movers and Shakers, New York, \"Leaving C&M\", Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7.\n^ Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. \"The New Art: It's Way, Way Out\", Newsweek, 29 July 1968: pp. 3, 55–63.\n^ Christopher Want, \"Minimalism\" in Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, 2009.\n^ \"Minimalism\". Encyclopædia Britannica.\n^ a b c Hal Foster, The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century, MIT Press, 1996, pp. 44–53. ISBN 0-262-56107-7\n^ \"Notes on The Theatre of Eternal Music and The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys\" (original PDF file webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331015833/http://www.melafoundation.org/theatre.pdf ), 2000, Mela Foundation, www.melafoundation.org—Historical account and musical essay where Young explains why he considers himself the originator of the style vs. Tony Conrad and John Cale\n^ \"'Fountain', Marcel Duchamp: Summary - - Tate\". Tate.\n^ \"Blindman No. 2\".\n^ Craig Owens, Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture, London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp. 74–75.\n^ Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, The Postmodern Turn, Guilford Press, 1997, p. 174. ISBN 1-57230-221-6\n^ \"Carolee Schneemann, Biography: Selected Works, Recent and Forthcoming Events\".\n^ \"Fluxus & Happening – Allan Kaprow – Chronology\". Retrieved 4 May 2010.\n^ Finkel, Jori (13 April 2008). \"Happenings Are Happening Again\". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 April 2010.\n^ Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. p. 13. ISBN 0-631-23213-3\n^ a b Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia, Routledge, 1995. p. 192. ISBN 0-415-90934-1\n^ \"Modernism and Popular Music - Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism\". www.rem.routledge.com. Retrieved 9 September 2021.\n^ \"Why Jazz Musicians Love 'The Rite Of Spring'\". NPR.org. Retrieved 9 September 2021.\n^ a b Albiez, Sean (2017). \"Avant-pop\". In Horn, David (ed.). Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Vol. XI: Genres: Europe. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 36–38. doi:10.5040/9781501326110-0111. ISBN 9781501326103.\n^ Patrick, Jonathan (8 March 2013). \"Joe Meek's pop masterpiece I Hear a New World gets the chance to haunt a whole new generation of audiophile geeks\". Tiny Mix Tapes.\n^ Ratcliff, Carter. \"The New Informalists\", Art News, v. 68, n. 8, December 1969, p. 72.\n^ Barbara Rose. American Painting. Part Two: The Twentieth Century. Published by Skira–Rizzoli, New York, 1969\n^ Walter Darby Bannard. \"Notes on American Painting of the Sixties.\" Artforum, January 1970, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 40–45.\n^ Peter Kalliney, \"Modernism, African Literature, and the Cold War\". Modern Language Quarterly (2015) 76 (3): 333–368.\n^ Peter Kalliney, \"Modernism, African Literature, and the Cold War\".\n^ Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938. Edited by William J. Tyler. University of Hawai'i Press, 2008, [1].\n^ \"Draft confirmed as Kawabata novel\". The Japan Times. 15 July 2012. Archived from the original on 26 January 2014.\n^ (cited in Plan 2/1982, Amsterdam)\n^ \"Postmodernism\", The Penguin Companion to Classical Music, ed. Paul Griffiths. London: Penguin, 2004.\n^ a b Bokkilden. \"Postmodern Debates\". Bokkilden.\n^ \"Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar\".\n^ \"Postmodern - Definition of postmodern by Merriam-Webster\".\n^ Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; American Heritage Dictionary's definition of the postmodern Archived 9 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine\n^ \"The Po-Mo Page: Postmodern to Post-postmodern\".\n^ Wagner, British, Irish and American Literature, Trier 2002, pp. 210–12\n^ Kühnel, Anita. \"Entartete Kunst\", from Grove Art Online, MoMA website.\n^ Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004), \"Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music\", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.\n^ \"Out Of This World: Designs Of The Space Age\". NPR.org. Retrieved 9 September 2021.\n^ Novak, Matt. \"Googie: Architecture of the Space Age\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 9 September 2021.\n^ Jane Bennet book Retrieved 19 January 2021\n^ Jack, Ian (6 June 2009). \"Set in Stone\". The Guardian. London.\nSources[edit]\nJohn Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book (1984).\nEco, Umberto (1990) Interpreting Serials in The limits of interpretation, pp. 83–100, excerpt\nEverdell, William R. (1997) The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).\nGerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383–417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed. (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds. (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58–81.\nGerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–337; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.\nOrton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed, Manchester University.\nSteiner, George (1998) After Babel, ch.6 Topologies of culture, 3rd revised edition\nArt Berman (1994) Preface to Modernism, University of Illinois Press.\nFurther reading[edit]\nRobert Archambeau. “The Avant-Garde in Babel. Two or Three Notes on Four or Five Words”, Action-Yes vol. 1, issue 8 Autumn 2008.\nArmstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3.\nAspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol. XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988\nBäckström, Per (ed.), Centre-Periphery. The Avant-Garde and the Other, Nordlit. University of Tromsø, no. 21, 2007.\nBäckström, Per. ”One Earth, Four or Five Words. The Peripheral Concept of ’Avant-Garde’”, Action-Yes vol. 1, issue 12 Winter 2010\nBäckström, Per & Bodil Børset (eds.), Norsk avantgarde (Norwegian Avant-Garde), Oslo: Novus, 2011.\nBäckström, Per & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.), Decentring the Avant-Garde, Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.\nBäckström, Per and Benedikt Hjartarson. “Rethinking the Topography of the International Avant-Garde”, in Decentring the Avant-Garde, Per Bäckström & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.), Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.\nBaker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987\nBerman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London: Penguin, 1982. ISBN 0-14-010962-5.\nBradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (Penguin \"Penguin Literary Criticism\" series, 1978, ISBN 0-14-013832-3).\nBrush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988\nCentre Georges Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996. Flammarion, 1996. ISBN 2-85850-898-4.\nCrouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000\nEysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992\nFriedman, Julia. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-8101-2617-6 (Trade Cloth)\nFrascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with The Open University. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.\nGates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.\nHughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27582-3).\nKenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973\nKern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983\nKolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).\nLevenson, Michael, (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, \"Cambridge Companions to Literature\" series, 1999, ISBN 0-521-49866-X).\nLewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).\nNicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).\nPevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10571-1).\nThe Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (Thames & Hudson, \"World of Art\" series, 1985, ISBN 0-500-20072-6).\nPollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1).\nPollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8)\nPotter, Rachael (January 2009). \"Obscene Modernism and the Trade in Salacious Books\". Modernism/Modernity. 16 (1). ISSN 1071-6068.\nSass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). \"Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music\", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.\nSchorske, Carl. Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture. Vintage, 1980. ISBN 978-0-394-74478-0.\nSchwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985\nTyler, William J., ed. Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938. University of Hawai'i Press, 2008.\nVan Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l). Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, 2006. ISBN 978-90-76979-35-9.\nWeir, David, Decadence and the Making of Modernism, 1995, University of Massachusetts Press, ISBN 978-0-87023-992-2.\nWeston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001, ISBN 0-7148-4099-8).\nde Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).\nExternal links[edit]\nLook up modernism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Modernism.\nBallard, J. G., on Modernism.\nDenzer, Anthony S., PhD, Masters of Modernism.\nHoppé, E. O., photographer, Edwardian Modernists.\nMalady of Writing. Modernism you can dance to An online radio show that presents a humorous version of Modernism\nModernism Lab @ Yale University\nModernism/Modernity, official publication of the Modernist Studies Association\nModernism vs. Postmodernism\nPope Pius X's encyclical Pascendi, in which he defines Modernism as \"the synthesis of all heresies\".\nv\nt\ne\nModernism\nMilestones\nLe Déjeuner sur l’herbe (1862–1863)\nOlympia (1863)\nTristan und Isolde (1865)\nA Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886)\nMont Sainte-Victoir (1887)\nDon Juan (1888)\nThe Starry Night (1889)\nUbu Roi (1896)\nVerklärte Nacht (1899)\nPelléas et Mélisande (1902)\nSalome (opera) (1905)\nLe bonheur de vivre (1905–1906)\nLes Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907)\nThe Dance (1909–1910)\nThe Firebird (1910)\nAfternoon of a Faun (1912)\nNude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912)\nThe Rite of Spring (1913)\nIn Search of Lost Time (1913–1927)\nThe Metamorphosis (1915)\nBlack Square (1915)\nFountain (1917)\nThe Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)\nSix Characters in Search of an Author (1921)\nUlysses (1922)\nThe Waste Land (1922)\nThe Magic Mountain (1924)\nBattleship Potemkin (1925)\nThe Sun Also Rises (1926)\nMetropolis (1927)\nThe Threepenny Opera (1928)\nThe Master and Margarita (1928–1940)\nThe Sound and the Fury (1929)\nUn Chien Andalou (1929)\nVilla Savoye (1931)\nThe Blue Lotus (1936)\nFallingwater (1936)\nCitizen Kane (1941)\nMeshes of the Afternoon (1943)\n4'33\" (1952)\nWaiting for Godot (1953)\nVertigo (1958)\nLiterature\nGuillaume Apollinaire\nDjuna Barnes\nAndrei Bely\nTadeusz Borowski\nAndré Breton\nHermann Broch\nMikhail Bulgakov\nAnton Chekhov\nJoseph Conrad\nAlfred Döblin\nE. M. Forster\nWilliam Faulkner\nGustave Flaubert\nFord Madox Ford\nAndré Gide\nMaxim Gorky\nHenry Green\nKnut Hamsun\nJaroslav Hašek\nErnest Hemingway\nHermann Hesse\nJames Joyce\nFranz Kafka\nArthur Koestler\nD. H. Lawrence\nWyndham Lewis\nThomas Mann\nKatherine Mansfield\nFilippo Tommaso Marinetti\nGuy de Maupassant\nRobert Musil\nJohn Dos Passos\nAndrei Platonov\nKatherine Anne Porter\nMarcel Proust\nGertrude Stein\nItalo Svevo\nMiguel de Unamuno\nVirginia Woolf\nPoetry\nAnna Akhmatova\nRichard Aldington\nW. H. Auden\nCharles Baudelaire\nLuca Caragiale\nConstantine P. Cavafy\nBlaise Cendrars\nHart Crane\nH.D.\nRobert Desnos\nT. S. Eliot\nPaul Éluard\nOdysseas Elytis\nF. S. Flint\nStefan George\nMax Jacob\nFederico García Lorca\nAmy Lowell\nRobert Lowell\nMina Loy\nStéphane Mallarmé\nMarianne Moore\nWilfred Owen\nOctavio Paz\nFernando Pessoa\nEzra Pound\nLionel Richard\nRainer Maria Rilke\nArthur Rimbaud\nGiorgos Seferis\nWallace Stevens\nDylan Thomas\nTristan Tzara\nPaul Valéry\nWilliam Carlos Williams\nW. B. Yeats\nVisual art\nJosef Albers\nJean Arp\nBalthus\nGeorge Bellows\nUmberto Boccioni\nPierre Bonnard\nGeorges Braque\nConstantin Brâncuși\nAlexander Calder\nMary Cassatt\nPaul Cézanne\nMarc Chagall\nGiorgio de Chirico\nCamille Claudel\nJoseph Cornell\nJoseph Csaky\nSalvador Dalí\nEdgar Degas\nRaoul Dufy\nWillem de Kooning\nRobert Delaunay\nCharles Demuth\nOtto Dix\nTheo van Doesburg\nMarcel Duchamp\nJames Ensor\nMax Ernst\nJacob Epstein\nPaul Gauguin\nAlberto Giacometti\nVincent van Gogh\nNatalia Goncharova\nJulio González\nJuan Gris\nGeorge Grosz\nRaoul Hausmann\nJacques Hérold\nHannah Höch\nEdward Hopper\nFrida Kahlo\nWassily Kandinsky\nErnst Ludwig Kirchner\nPaul Klee\nOskar Kokoschka\nPyotr Konchalovsky\nAndré Lhote\nFernand Léger\nFranz Marc\nAlbert Marque\nJean Marchand\nRené Magritte\nKazimir Malevich\nÉdouard Manet\nHenri Matisse\nColin McCahon\nJean Metzinger\nJoan Miró\nAmedeo Modigliani\nPiet Mondrian\nClaude Monet\nHenry Moore\nEdvard Munch\nEmil Nolde\nGeorgia O'Keeffe\nMéret Oppenheim\nFrancis Picabia\nPablo Picasso\nCamille Pissarro\nMan Ray\nOdilon Redon\nPierre-Auguste Renoir\nAminollah Rezaei\nAuguste Rodin\nHenri Rousseau\nEgon Schiele\nGeorges Seurat\nPaul Signac\nAlfred Sisley\nEdward Steichen\nAlfred Stieglitz\nHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec\nÉdouard Vuillard\nGrant Wood\nLin Fengmian\nMusic\nGeorge Antheil\nMilton Babbitt\nJean Barraqué\nBéla Bartók\nAlban Berg\nLuciano Berio\nNadia Boulanger\nPierre Boulez\nJohn Cage\nElliott Carter\nAaron Copland\nClaude Debussy\nHenry Cowell\nHenri Dutilleux\nMorton Feldman\nHenryk Górecki\nJosef Matthias Hauer\nPaul Hindemith\nArthur Honegger\nCharles Ives\nLeoš Janáček\nGyörgy Ligeti\nWitold Lutosławski\nOlivier Messiaen\nDarius Milhaud\nLuigi Nono\nHarry Partch\nKrzysztof Penderecki\nFrancis Poulenc\nSergei Prokofiev\nLuigi Russolo\nErik Satie\nPierre Schaeffer\nArnold Schoenberg\nDmitri Shostakovich\nRichard Strauss\nIgor Stravinsky\nKarol Szymanowski\nEdgard Varèse\nHeitor Villa-Lobos\nRichard Wagner\nAnton Webern\nKurt Weill\nIannis Xenakis\nTheatre\nEdward Albee\nMaxwell Anderson\nJean Anouilh\nAntonin Artaud\nSamuel Beckett\nBertolt Brecht\nAnton Chekhov\nFriedrich Dürrenmatt\nJean Genet\nMaxim Gorky\nWalter Hasenclever\nHenrik Ibsen\nWilliam Inge\nEugène Ionesco\nAlfred Jarry\nGeorg Kaiser\nMaurice Maeterlinck\nVladimir Mayakovsky\nArthur Miller\nSeán O'Casey\nEugene O'Neill\nJohn Osborne\nLuigi Pirandello\nErwin Piscator\nGeorge Bernard Shaw\nAugust Strindberg\nJohn Millington Synge\nErnst Toller\nFrank Wedekind\nThornton Wilder\nStanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz\nFilm\nRobert Aldrich\nMichelangelo Antonioni\nTex Avery\nIngmar Bergman\nAnton Giulio Bragaglia\nStan Brakhage\nRobert Bresson\nLuis Buñuel\nMarcel Carné\nCharlie Chaplin\nRené Clair\nJean Cocteau\nJules Dassin\nMaya Deren\nAlexander Dovzhenko\nCarl Theodor Dreyer\nViking Eggeling\nSergei Eisenstein\nJean Epstein\nFederico Fellini\nRobert J. Flaherty\nJohn Ford\nSam Fuller\nAbel Gance\nJean-Luc Godard\nJohn and Faith Hubley\nIsidore Isou\nBuster Keaton\nLev Kuleshov\nAkira Kurosawa\nFritz Lang\nJoseph Losey\nIda Lupino\nLen Lye\nMarcel L'Herbier\nNorman McLaren\nGeorges Méliès\nF. W. Murnau\nYasujiro Ozu\nGeorg Wilhelm Pabst\nVsevolod Pudovkin\nNicholas Ray\nSatyajit Ray\nAlain Renais\nJean Renoir\nTony Richardson\nWalter Ruttmann\nDouglas Sirk\nVictor Sjöström\nJosef von Sternberg\nAndrei Tarkovsky\nJacques Tati\nJacques Tourneur\nFrançois Truffaut\nDziga Vertov\nJean Vigo\nOrson Welles\nRobert Wiene\nDance\nGeorge Balanchine\nMerce Cunningham\nClotilde von Derp\nSergei Diaghilev\nIsadora Duncan\nMichel Fokine\nLoie Fuller\nMartha Graham\nHanya Holm\nDoris Humphrey\nLéonide Massine\nVaslav Nijinsky\nAlwin Nikolais\nAlexander Sakharoff\nTed Shawn\nAnna Sokolow\nRuth St. Denis\nHelen Tamiris\nCharles Weidman\nGrete Wiesenthal\nMary Wigman\nArchitecture\nMarcel Breuer\nGordon Bunshaft\nJack Allen Charney\nWalter Gropius\nHector Guimard\nRaymond Hood\nVictor Horta\nFriedensreich Hundertwasser\nPhilip Johnson\nLouis Kahn\nLe Corbusier\nAdolf Loos\nKonstantin Melnikov\nErich Mendelsohn\nPier Luigi Nervi\nRichard Neutra\nOscar Niemeyer\nHans Poelzig\nAntonin Raymond\nGerrit Rietveld\nEero Saarinen\nRudolf Steiner\nEdward Durell Stone\nLouis Sullivan\nVladimir Tatlin\nPaul Troost\nLudwig Mies van der Rohe\nFrank Lloyd Wright\nRelated\nAmerican modernism\nArmory Show\nArt Deco\nArt Nouveau\nAshcan School\nAvant-garde\nBallets Russes\nBauhaus\nBuddhist modernism\nClassical Hollywood cinema\nConstructivism\nCubism\nDada\nDegenerate art\nDe Stijl\nDer Blaue Reiter\nDie Brücke\nEcomodernism\nExperimental film\nExpressionism\nExpressionist music\nFauvism\nFilm noir\nFourth dimension in art\nFourth dimension in literature\nFuturism\nGrosvenor School of Modern Art\nHanshinkan Modernism\nHigh modernism\nImagism\nImpressionism\nImpressionist music\nImpressionist literature\nIncoherents\nInternational Style\nLate modernism\nLate modernity\nLettrism\nList of art movements\nList of avant-garde artists\nList of modernist poets\nLyrical abstraction\nMaximalism\nMinimalism\nModern art\nModernity\nNeo-Dada\nNeo-primitivism\nNew Hollywood\nNew Objectivity\nOrphism\nPost-Impressionism\nPostminimalism\nPostmodern music\nPostmodernism\nPostmodernist film\nPulp noir\nReactionary modernism\nMetamodernism\nRemodernism\nRomanticism\nSecond Viennese School\nStructural film\nSurrealism\nSymbolism\nSynchromism\nTonalism\nUnderground film\nWarsaw Autumn\n← Romanticism\nCategory\nv\nt\ne\nWestern art movements\nList of art movements\nAncient\nEgyptian\nAmarna style\nThracian\nDacian\nNuragic\nAegean\nCycladic\nMinoan\nMycenaean\nGreek\nSub-Mycenaean\nProtogeometric\nGeometric\nOrientalizing\nArchaic\nBlack-figure\nRed-figure\nSevere style\nClassical\nKerch style\nHellenistic\nBaroque\nNeo-Attic\nEtruscan\nIberian\nGaulish\nRoman\nRepublican\nGallo-Roman\nJulio-Claudian\nPompeian Styles\nTrajanic\nHadrianic [it]\nAntonine [it]\nunder Commodus [it]\nSeveran\nGallienian [it]\nLate antique\nEarly Christian\nDiocletianic [it]\nConstantinian [it]\nTheodosian [it]\nMedieval\nMigration Period\nAnglo-Saxon\nVisigothic\nMozarabic\nRepoblación\nPre-Romanesque\nInsular\nViking\nByzantine\nIconoclast\nMacedonian\nItalo-Byzantine\nMerovingian\nCarolingian\nOttonian\nRomanesque\nNorman-Sicilian\nGothic\nInternational Gothic\nMudéjar\nProto-Renaissance\nRenaissance\nItalian Renaissance\nHigh Renaissance\nVenetian painting\nCanonical painting modes\nSfumato\nUnione\nCangiante\nChiaroscuro\nNorthern Renaissance\nEarly Netherlandish\nGhent-Bruges school\nGerman Renaissance\nAntwerp Mannerism\nDanube school\nCretan school\nRomanism\nMannerism\nNorthern Mannerism\nCounter-Mannerism\nTurquerie\nFontainebleau\n17th century\nBaroque\nFlemish Baroque painting\nLutheran baroque\nGuild of Romanists\nDutch Golden Age\nCaravaggisti\nin Utrecht\nTenebrism\nHeptanese School\nClassicism\n18th century\nChinoiserie\nRocaille\nRococo\nNeoclassicism\nRomanticism\nPicturesque\n19th century\nOrientalism\nTroubadour style\nNazarene\nRealism\nCostumbrismo\nPeredvizhniki\nHistoricism\nBiedermeier\nBarbizon school\nPre-Raphaelites\nAcademic art\nMunich School\nHudson River School\nAestheticism\nMacchiaioli\nJaponisme\nImpressionism\nTonalism\nHeidelberg School\nDecadent\nSymbolism\nIncoherents\nArts and Crafts\nArt pottery\nAmerican\nArt Nouveau\nVienna Secession\nPost-Impressionism\nNeo-Impressionism\nDivisionism\nPointillism\nCloisonnism\nSynthetism\nLes Nabis\nNaïve art\nPrimitivism\n1900-1945\nFauvism\nOutsider art\nDie Brücke\nCubism\nOrphism\nCrystal Cubism\nPurism\nExpressionism\nNeue Künstlervereinigung München\nFuturism\nCubo-Futurism\nAeropittura\nArt Deco\nStreamline Moderne\nMetaphysical art\nRayonism\nDer Blaue Reiter\nSynchromism\nVorticism\nSuprematism\nConstructivism\nAshcan School\nDada\nDe Stijl\nReturn to order\nNovecento Italiano\nAustralian tonalism\nSocial realism\nBauhaus\nKinetic art\nNew Objectivity\nGrosvenor School\nNeues Sehen\nSurrealism\nNeo-Fauvism\nPrecisionism\nAsemic writing\nScuola Romana\nRegionalism\nHeroic realism\nSocialist realism\nNazi art\n1945-2000\nInternational Typographic Style\nAbstract expressionism\nVienna School of Fantastic Realism\nColor Field\nLyrical abstraction\nTachisme\nCOBRA\nAction painting\nAmerican Figurative Expressionism\nNew media art\nLetterist International\nPop art\nSituationist International\nLettrism\nNeo-Dada\nOp art\nNouveau réalisme\nArt & Language\nConceptual art\nLand art\nSystems art\nVideo art\nMinimalism\nFluxus\nPhotorealism\nPerformance art\nLight and Space\nInstallation art\nEndurance art\nNeo-expressionism\nLowbrow art\nMemphis Group\nYoung British Artists\nThe Designers Republic\n21st century\nAltermodern\nArt for art\nArt intervention\nClassical Realism\nExcessivism\nFlat design\nGuerrilla Zoo\nHyperrealism\nKitsch movement\nModern European ink painting\nNeo-futurism\nNeomodern\nNeosymbolism\nRelational art\nSkeuomorphism\nSoFlo Superflat\nSound art\nStuckism\nSuperstroke\nUnilalianism\nWalking art\nRelated\nHistory of art\nAbstract art\nAvant-garde\nCeltic art\nChristian art\nArt in the Protestant Reformation\nCatholic art\nIcon\nLutheran art\nContemporary art\nFeminist art movement (in the US)\nGenre painting\nHierarchy of genres\nHistory painting\nIlluminated manuscript\nKitsch\nModernism\nModern art\nModern sculpture\nLate modernism\nPostmodern art\nPrehistoric art\nWestern painting\nCategory\nv\nt\ne\nPositivism\nPerspectives\nAntihumanism\nEmpiricism\nRationalism\nScientism\nDeclinations\nLegal positivism\nLogical positivism / analytic philosophy\nPositivist school\nPostpositivism\nSociological positivism\nMachian positivism (empirio-criticism)\nRankean historical positivism\nPolish positivism\nRussian Machism\nPrincipal concepts\nConsilience\nDemarcation\nEvidence\nInduction\nJustification\nPseudoscience\nCritique of metaphysics\nUnity of science\nVerificationism\nAntitheses\nAntipositivism\nConfirmation holism\nCritical theory\nFalsifiability\nGeisteswissenschaft\nHermeneutics\nHistoricism\nHistorism\nHuman science\nHumanities\nMethodological dualism\nProblem of induction\nReflectivism\nRelated paradigm shifts\nin the history of science\nNon-Euclidean geometry (1830s)\nUncertainty principle (1927)\nRelated topics\nBehavioralism\nPost-behavioralism\nCritical rationalism\nCriticism of science\nEpistemology\nanarchism\nidealism\nnihilism\npluralism\nrealism\nHolism\nInstrumentalism\nModernism\nNaturalism in literature\nNomothetic–idiographic distinction\nObjectivity in science\nOperationalism\nPhenomenalism\nPhilosophy of science\nDeductive-nomological model\nRamsey sentence\nSense-data theory\nQualitative research\nRelationship between religion and science\nSociology\nSocial science\nPhilosophy\nStructural functionalism\nStructuralism\nStructuration theory\nPositivist-related debate\nMethod\nMethodenstreit (1890s)\nWerturteilsstreit (1909–1959)\nPositivismusstreit (1960s)\nFourth Great Debate in international relations (1980s)\nScience wars (1990s)\nContributions\nThe Course in Positive Philosophy (1830)\nA General View of Positivism (1848)\nCritical History of Philosophy (1869)\nIdealism and Positivism (1879–1884)\nThe Analysis of Sensations (1886)\nThe Logic of Modern Physics (1927)\nLanguage, Truth, and Logic (1936)\nThe Two Cultures (1959)\nThe Universe in a Nutshell (2001)\nProponents\nRichard Avenarius\nA. J. Ayer\nAlexander Bogdanov\nAuguste Comte\nEugen Dühring\nÉmile Durkheim\nErnst Laas\nErnst Mach\nBerlin Circle\nVienna Circle\nCriticism\nMaterialism and Empirio-criticism (1909)\nHistory and Class Consciousness (1923)\nThe Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934)\nThe Poverty of Historicism (1936)\nWorld Hypotheses (1942)\nTwo Dogmas of Empiricism (1951)\nTruth and Method (1960)\nThe Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962)\nConjectures and Refutations (1963)\nOne-Dimensional Man (1964)\nKnowledge and Human Interests (1968)\nThe Poverty of Theory (1978)\nThe Scientific Image (1980)\nThe Rhetoric of Economics (1986)\nCritics\nTheodor W. Adorno\nGaston Bachelard\nMario Bunge\nWilhelm Dilthey\nPaul Feyerabend\nHans-Georg Gadamer\nThomas Kuhn\nGyörgy Lukács\nKarl Popper\nWillard Van Orman Quine\nMax Weber\nConcepts in contention\nKnowledge\nObjectivity\nPhronesis\nTruth\nVerstehen\nCategory\nv\nt\ne\nSub-fields of and approaches to human geography\nSub-fields\nBehavioral\nCognitive\nCultural\nDevelopment\nEconomic\nHealth\nHistorical\nIntegrated\nLanguage\nMarketing\nMilitary\nPolitical\nPopulation\nReligion\nSocial\nStrategic\nTourism\nTransport\nUrban\nApproaches\nCritical\nCulture theory\nFeminist\nMarxist\nModernism\nStructuralism\nSemiotics\nNon-representational theory\nPostmodernism\nPost-structuralism\nDeconstruction\nScientific method\nSexuality and space\nTime\nCategory\nPortal\nCommons\nv\nt\ne\nAesthetics topics\nPhilosophers\nAbhinavagupta\nTheodor W. Adorno\nLeon Battista Alberti\nThomas Aquinas\nHans Urs von Balthasar\nAlexander Gottlieb Baumgarten\nClive Bell\nBernard Bosanquet\nEdward Bullough\nR. G. Collingwood\nAnanda Coomaraswamy\nArthur Danto\nJohn Dewey\nDenis Diderot\nHubert Dreyfus\nCurt John Ducasse\nThierry de Duve\nRoger Fry\nNelson Goodman\nClement Greenberg\nGeorg Hegel\nMartin Heidegger\nDavid Hume\nImmanuel Kant\nPaul Klee\nSusanne Langer\nTheodor Lipps\nGyörgy Lukács\nJean-François Lyotard\nJoseph Margolis\nJacques Maritain\nThomas Munro\nFriedrich Nietzsche\nJosé Ortega y Gasset\nDewitt H. Parker\nStephen Pepper\nDavid Prall\nJacques Rancière\nAyn Rand\nLouis Lavelle\nGeorge Lansing Raymond\nI. A. Richards\nGeorge Santayana\nFriedrich Schiller\nArthur Schopenhauer\nRoger Scruton\nIrving Singer\nRabindranath Tagore\nGiorgio Vasari\nMorris Weitz\nJohann Joachim Winckelmann\nRichard Wollheim\nmore...\nTheories\nClassicism\nEvolutionary aesthetics\nHistoricism\nModernism\nNew Classical\nPostmodernism\nPsychoanalytic theory\nRomanticism\nSymbolism\nmore...\nConcepts\nAesthetic emotions\nAesthetic interpretation\nArt manifesto\nAvant-garde\nAxiology\nBeauty\nBoredom\nCamp\nComedy\nCreativity\nCuteness\nDisgust\nEcstasy\nElegance\nEntertainment\nEroticism\nFun\nGaze\nHarmony\nJudgement\nKama\nKitsch\nLife imitating art\nMagnificence\nMimesis\nPerception\nQuality\nRasa\nRecreation\nReverence\nStyle\nSthayibhava\nSublime\nTaste\nWork of art\nRelated\nAesthetics of music\nApplied aesthetics\nArchitecture\nArt\nArts criticism\nFeminist aesthetics\nGastronomy\nHistory of painting\nHumour\nJapanese aesthetics\nLiterary merit\nMathematical beauty\nMathematics and architecture\nMathematics and art\nMedieval aesthetics\nMusic theory\nNeuroesthetics\nPainting\nPatterns in nature\nPhilosophy of design\nPhilosophy of film\nPhilosophy of music\nPoetry\nSculpture\nTheory of painting\nTheory of art\nTragedy\nVisual arts\nIndex\nOutline\nCategory\nPhilosophy portal\nv\nt\ne\nPhilosophy\nBranches\nTraditional\nMetaphysics\nEpistemology\nLogic\nEthics\nAesthetics\nPhilosophy of...\nAction\nColor\nCulture\nDesign\nMusic\nFilm\nCosmology\nEducation\nEnvironment\nGeography\nHappiness\nHistory\nHuman nature\nHumor\nFeminism\nLanguage\nLaw\nLife\nLiterature\nMathematics\nMedicine\nHealthcare\nPsychiatry\nMind\nPain\nPsychology\nPerception\nPhilosophy\nReligion\nScience\nPhysics\nChemistry\nBiology\nSexuality\nSocial science\nBusiness\nCulture\nEconomics\nPolitics\nSociety\nSpace and time\nSport\nTechnology\nArtificial intelligence\nComputer science\nEngineering\nInformation\nWar\nSchools of thought\nBy era\nAncient\nWestern\nMedieval\nRenaissance\nEarly modern\nModern\nContemporary\nAncient\nChinese\nAgriculturalism\nConfucianism\nLegalism\nLogicians\nMohism\nChinese naturalism\nNeotaoism\nTaoism\nYangism\nChan\nGreco-Roman\nAristotelianism\nAtomism\nCynicism\nCyrenaics\nEleatics\nEretrian school\nEpicureanism\nHermeneutics\nIonian\nEphesian\nMilesian\nMegarian school\nNeoplatonism\nPeripatetic\nPlatonism\nPluralism\nPresocratic\nPyrrhonism\nPythagoreanism\nNeopythagoreanism\nSophistic\nStoicism\nIndian\nHindu\nSamkhya\nNyaya\nVaisheshika\nYoga\nMīmāṃsā\nĀjīvika\nAjñana\nCārvāka\nJain\nAnekantavada\nSyādvāda\nBuddhist\nŚūnyatā\nMadhyamaka\nYogacara\nSautrāntika\nSvatantrika\nPersian\nMazdakism\nMithraism\nZoroastrianism\nZurvanism\nMedieval\nEuropean\nChristian\nAugustinianism\nScholasticism\nThomism\nScotism\nOccamism\nRenaissance humanism\nEast Asian\nKorean Confucianism\nEdo neo-Confucianism\nNeo-Confucianism\nIndian\nVedanta\nAcintya bheda abheda\nAdvaita\nBhedabheda\nDvaita\nNimbarka Sampradaya\nShuddhadvaita\nVishishtadvaita\nNavya-Nyāya\nIslamic\nAverroism\nAvicennism\nIlluminationism\nʿIlm al-Kalām\nSufi\nJewish\nJudeo-Islamic\nModern\nPeople\nCartesianism\nKantianism\nNeo-Kantianism\nHegelianism\nMarxism\nSpinozism\n0\nAnarchism\nClassical Realism\nLiberalism\nCollectivism\nConservatism\nDeterminism\nDualism\nEmpiricism\nExistentialism\nFoundationalism\nHistoricism\nHolism\nHumanism\nAnti-\nIdealism\nAbsolute\nBritish\nGerman\nObjective\nSubjective\nTranscendental\nIndividualism\nKokugaku\nMaterialism\nModernism\nMonism\nNaturalism\nNatural law\nNihilism\nNew Confucianism\nNeo-scholasticism\nPragmatism\nPhenomenology\nPositivism\nReductionism\nRationalism\nSocial contract\nSocialism\nTranscendentalism\nUtilitarianism\nContemporary\nAnalytic\nApplied ethics\nAnalytic feminism\nAnalytical Marxism\nCommunitarianism\nConsequentialism\nCritical rationalism\nExperimental philosophy\nFalsificationism\nFoundationalism / Coherentism\nInternalism and externalism\nLogical positivism\nLegal positivism\nNormative ethics\nMeta-ethics\nMoral realism\nQuinean naturalism\nOrdinary language philosophy\nPostanalytic philosophy\nQuietism\nRawlsian\nReformed epistemology\nSystemics\nScientism\nScientific realism\nScientific skepticism\nTransactionalism\nContemporary utilitarianism\nVienna Circle\nWittgensteinian\nContinental\nCritical theory\nDeconstruction\nExistentialism\nFeminist\nFrankfurt School\nNew Historicism\nHermeneutics\nNeo-Marxism\nPhenomenology\nPosthumanism\nPostmodernism\nPost-structuralism\nSocial constructionism\nStructuralism\nWestern Marxism\nOther\nKyoto School\nObjectivism\nPostcritique\nRussian cosmism\nmore...\nPositions\nAesthetics\nFormalism\nInstitutionalism\nAesthetic response\nEthics\nConsequentialism\nDeontology\nVirtue\nFree will\nCompatibilism\nDeterminism\nHard\nIncompatibilism\nHard\nLibertarianism\nMetaphysics\nAtomism\nDualism\nIdealism\nMonism\nNaturalism\nRealism\nEpistemology\nEmpiricism\nFideism\nNaturalism\nParticularism\nRationalism\nSkepticism\nSolipsism\nMind\nBehaviorism\nEmergentism\nEliminativism\nEpiphenomenalism\nFunctionalism\nObjectivism\nSubjectivism\nNormativity\nAbsolutism\nParticularism\nRelativism\nNihilism\nSkepticism\nUniversalism\nOntology\nAction\nEvent\nProcess\nReality\nAnti-realism\nConceptualism\nIdealism\nMaterialism\nNaturalism\nNominalism\nPhysicalism\nRealism\nBy region\nRelated lists\nMiscellaneous\nBy region\nAfrican\nEthiopian\nAmerindian\nAztec\nEastern\nChinese\nEgyptian\nIndian\nIndonesian\nIranian\nJapanese\nKorean\nTaiwanese\nPakistani\nVietnamese\nMiddle Eastern\nWestern\nAmerican\nAustralian\nBritish\nScottish\nCzech\nDanish\nFrench\nGerman\nGreek\nItalian\nPolish\nRomanian\nRussian\nSlovene\nSpanish\nTurkish\nMaltese\nLists\nOutline\nIndex\nYears\nProblems\nSchools\nGlossary\nPhilosophers\nMovements\nPublications\nMiscellaneous\nNatural law\nSage\nTheoretical philosophy / Practical philosophy\nWomen in philosophy\nPortal\nCategory\nv\nt\ne\nWestern world and culture\nAspects\nCanon\nChristendom\nEsotericism\nLaw\nLiterature\nMedia\nMusic\nPainting (contemporary)\nPhilosophy\nReligion\nHistory\nClassical antiquity\nLate antiquity\nMiddle Ages (early\nhigh\nlate)\nRenaissance\nReformation\nAge of Enlightenment\nEarly modern period\nGreat Divergence\nModernism\nWesternization\nWorld Wars\nCold War\nWar on Terror\nAuthority control\nNational libraries\nFrance (data)\nUnited States\nJapan\nOther\nFaceted Application of Subject Terminology\nInternet Encyclopedia of Ukraine\nMicrosoft Academic\nRetrieved from 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{"content":"Henry Bradford Endicott (September 11, 1853[1][2] – February 12, 1920[3]) was the founder of the Endicott Johnson Corporation as well as the builder of the Endicott Estate, in Dedham, Massachusetts. During World War I he served in numerous public capacities, including as a labor strike negotiator and as director of the Massachusetts Committee on Public Safety.\nHe was born in Dedham, and died of spinal meningitis at the Brooks Hospital in Brookline.[3][4] He was born poor but died a multimillionaire,[4] one of the richest men in the world,[5] and was called \"a typical Horatio Alger type.\"[2] The village of Endicott, New York was named for him.\nContents\n1 Personal life\n2 Business career\n3 Charities and public service\n3.1 World War I\n4 Labor disputes\n5 Endicott Estate\n6 End of life\n6.1 Death and funeral\n6.2 Legacy\n7 Notes\n8 References\n9 Works cited\n10 Further reading\nPersonal life[edit]\nHenry Bradford Endicott was born in the family homestead in Dedham,[2] the son of Augustus Bradford Endicott, a businessman and state and local official, and Sarah Fairbanks.[1][6] He was a descendant of John Endecott, the first governor of Massachusetts, on his father's side[7] and direct descendant of Jonathan Fairbanks on his mother's. He was graduated from Dedham High School after three years.[1]\nHe had two children, Henry Wendell and Gertrude Adele, with his first wife, Caroline Williams Russell, whom he married on May 23, 1876.[1][2][7][nb 1] They divorced in 1904.[4] He remarried in Rye Beach, New Hampshire to fellow Dedhamite Louise Clapp Colburn, a widow with two children from her first marriage to Isaac Colburn (1853–1914), Samuel Clapp Colburn and Katherine Farwell Colburn.[2][4][7] He adopted the Colburn children in 1916.[2][4]\nEndicott liked to hunt and he enjoyed cigars.[4] When about to smoke in the company of a close friend, it was characteristic of him that he would pull a cigar from his vest pocket, clinch it with his teeth and, taking another perfecto from his vest, he would vigorously thrust it into the mouth of his companion.[4]\nBusiness career[edit]\nEndicott spent his boyhood on the farm of his father where his first venture into business was to sell the milk of the farm, the profits of which be divided with his mother.[4] He then went to work for a short time in a plumber's shop, but lost his job because he went to the Massachusetts State Fair in Reading after his boss told him he would be fired if he did so.[4]\nHe was 22 when he went in business for himself.[4] He had obtained work in the leather district and having acquired a little experience and a modest capital he launched the firm of H.B. Endicott & Co.[4] The company, which dealt in sheepskins, was headquartered at 27 High Street in Boston, a few doors down from the offices of the later Endicott Johnson Corporation 10 High Street.[3][4] He became treasurer of the Commonwealth Shoe & Leather Company, and it was through his connection with this firm that he entered the shoe manufacturing business.[4]\nEndicott went to the factory of the Lestershire Boot & Shoe Company near Binghamton, New York, to investigate an order of leather his company had made from them.[4] he was their principal creditor, and the company had fallen into financial difficulties in 1890.[10] Recognizing the potential of the company, he bought it.[4] Under his ownership, the renamed Lestershire Manufacturing Company grew to many times its original size.[4]\nHe sold half of the company to the company's foreman, George F. Johnson, but as Johnson did not have enough any money Endicott loaned him $150,000.[4][10] Their company became the Endicott Johnson Corporation. He operated factories in New York and had tanneries in Maine and Massachusetts.[3][7]\nHe was one of the largest employers in the country but there was never a strike at any of his factories,[3][7] and he did not hesitate to fraternize with his employees.[4] He once stepped into the lunch room at a factory and, sitting beside a group of his employees, he ate a frugal meal which did not cost more than 15 cents.[4] He chatted with the men at his side and spoke complimentary of the meal.[4]\nDuring World War I he made a million dollars or more in profit.[11] Endicott also served as director of the Chase National Bank of New York,[12] the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, the State Street Trust Company,[13] and of the United States Smelting and Refining Company.[4] He joined the board of Shawmut Bank after the Third National Bank closed merged with it.[14][15] In 1920 he called on workers to speed up production, but said that employers must make \"the conditions under which the work is speeded up as bright, sunny, comfortable and attractive as possible in all ways.\"[16]\nWhen the US Government brought a suit against United Shoe pursuant to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, it named Endicott as a defendant.[17] One of the chief antagonists the case was his fellow Dedhamite, Louis Brandeis.[18]\nCharities and public service[edit]\nWithin 12 hours of the 1917 Halifax Explosion, Endicott organized and sent a relief train to help with the recovery. It was an accomplishment which testified to his remarkable executive ability and power as an organizer for the train left the North Station bearing a large force of doctors and nurses that was assembled in haste from all over the state, as well as supplies.[4] He served as chairman of the Massachusetts–Halifax Relief Commission.[19]\nHe was also chairman of the Emergency Public Health Committee during the influenza epidemic of 1918.[7] During this epidemic he rallied the forces of the state for combating the disease and it is estimated that the service of this committee saved 10,000 lives.[4] He also regularly gave out free shoes to those in need.[20] He showered gifts upon the little New York town in which his big shoe factory was located and has been generous in providing means for public improvement in his native town of Dedham.[4]\nA few years before he died Endicott gave the New York town where his factory was located a $50,000 clubhouse.[4] Every Christmas for many years he gave \"a small sized fortune to the poor people of that town.\"[4] In 1919 it was for $10,000.[4]\nWorld War I[edit]\nHe was appointed by Governor Samuel W. McCall as food administrator and the executive manager of the Massachusetts Committee on Public Safety during World War I.[2][3][4][7] His activities in these two posts kept him constantly in the public eye and it was through his interest in seeing that Massachusetts and New England kept its resources unremittingly behind the government in the prosecution of the war that he first entered the industrial field as an adjuster of disputes.[4] As executive manager of the public safety committee he first directed a general inventory of the state s resources available to aid in the war.[4] As food administrator he laid out a program of food conservation and regulation which was imitated throughout the nation.[4]\nDuring this time he was a dollar-a-year man, taking only $1 in salary,[12] and he tore up the lawn on the Sanderson Street side of his estate to grow potatoes and other vegetables in order to support the war effort and show the need for Victory Gardens.[2][20] Endicott also took out $1 million in liberty bonds from his personal account, and an equal amount from his company's.[4]\nWhen Endicott resigned from his war commission appointments, Governor McCall stated:\nLet me say here that nothing could exceed the patriotism and efficiency of the work you have rendered. I understand that from the time you were appointed until yesterday, a period of 23 months, you have not once been to your place of business. I know that you have devoted yourself wholly to the patriotic work of rendering service to the country in the sore time through which we have passed.[4]\nEndicott himself said that\nI am not a politician. I do not want any public office in this State or in the nation. My sole object in doing the work I am engaged in is to render the public such service as I am capable of—a duty I feel incumbent on every citizen of this country in this crisis. I am enlisted for the war. All my energies, all my time, my business experience, and knowledge of affairs I willingly and gladly give the State and nation. I shall feel amply repaid if I can convince myself that I have been able to contribute something in behalf of the common cause in which the United States is engaged—the defeat of Prussianism and autocracy and the triumph of democracy as we understand it in America.[4]\nIn his war work Endicott never hesitated to cut red tape when by so doing he made the work of his department more efficient and brought speedier and more satisfactory results.[4] He said \"This is the way that private business is run. No private business could be run the way the government conducts its business. It would be in the hands of a receiver in no time.\"[4]\nLabor disputes[edit]\nEndicott enjoyed the confidence of both labor and capital, and he was called upon over and over again to adjust disputes which had engendered much bitter feeling on both sides.[4] Endicott was also appointed by the governor as a strike mediator and settled over 100 strikes, including ones at the Boston and Maine railroad, the elevated Boston railroad companies, and in factories around New England.[4][7] In a single year he settled disputes affecting over 100,000 workers.[21]\nHe said that when attempting to end a strike \"The first principle is to give a square deal to both employer and employee.\" When asked for a specific case, Endicott cited the Boston Elevated Railway strike, saying the carmen demanded 73 cents an hour and that the trustees were only willing to give 53 cents. After investigating the wages paid to the carmen in other large cities, he settled on 60 cents an hour, saying that it was only a fair wage when the importance of the men's work was considered.[4]\nHis reputation brought him appointment by President Woodrow Wilson as one of 15 public representatives at the National Labor Conference in Washington, D.C. in October 1919.[4][7] He was disappointed with the results of the conference.[7]\nEndicott Estate[edit]\nMain article: Endicott Estate\nThe Endicott Estate\nOn January 12, 1904, Endicott's home burnt to the ground while he and his family were away.[22] The fire department was not able to get to the estate in time as they were dealing with three other fires simultaneously,[23] including one at the fire house,[24] and deep snow.[22] The fire was discovered around 10 p.m. by a caretaker who lived in the house.[22] It took several hours to extinguish the flames.[22] The house and furnishings were valued at more than $15,000.[22]\nIt is said that \"Henry took the burning of the homestead as a divine command to rebuild, and rebuild he did, although not without incident.\"[2] He cleared the ashes away and built a new homestead on the 15-acre (61,000 m2) parcel, today known as the Endicott Estate,[23] and bought a new fire truck for the Town.[20]\nThe three story building he constructed has nine bathrooms, eight bedrooms, a library, a music room, a ballroom, a mirrored parlor, a butler's kitchen, a linen room, and servants' quarters.[20] When a radiator burst during the construction, \"causing a raging river to crash down the main stairway,\" he tore down one end of the house and burned a pile of beautiful wall paneling, parquet floors, and elegant woodwork, much to the dismay of his neighbors.[2] An additional 70 feet was then added onto the house.[2] While he was building his mansion, his distant cousins were living in the Fairbanks House just .3 miles (0.48 km) away[25] without electricity or indoor plumbing.[6]\nWhen he died in 1920 he left the building to his wife, who in turn left it to her daughter Katherine in 1944.[20] Katherine died in 1967 without any children and willed the land and the estate to the town for \"public educational purposes, public recreational purposes, or other exclusively public purposes.\"[23][26] At the time \"town didn't know quite what to do with it\" and it was given to the Commonwealth to be used as a governor's mansion, but those plans were scuttled.[2][6][27][28] What was a nine car garage on the Mt. Vernon Street side of the property today serves as the Endicott branch of the Dedham Public Library.[20]\nEnd of life[edit]\nHenry B. Endicott’s grave\nDeath and funeral[edit]\nIn January 1920, while on a hunting trip in North Carolina with other Boston men, which was meant to be a vacation from his public and business affairs, he came down with influenza.[4] The frequent and intense headaches he suffered on the return trip caused him to take up residence at the Hotel Touraine rather than at his home in Dedham so to be closer to his doctors.[4] He was taken to the hospital on February 10 where he was operated on, but remained delirious until his death on the 12th.[4] His family was at his bedside.[4]\nThe funeral services were extremely simple, and took place in the home of Clarence W. Barron at 334 Beacon Street in Boston.[4] A number of prominent men, including Harvard president A. Lawrence Lowell, served as pallbearers at his funeral, with Governors Calvin Coolidge and McCall serving as the head pallbearers.[29][nb 2] The funeral was led by James Hardy Ropes, dean of the Harvard University Extension School.[4][29] He was buried in the Forest Hills Cemetery.[29] McCall and Coolidge issued statements upon his death, with the former saying that he would \"take rank with the great patriots of Massachusetts.\"[21]\nPresident Woodrow Wilson telegramed his condolence to Louise Endicott, saying \"Permit me to express our heartfelt sympathy with you in your bereavement. Mr Endicott's disinterested and public spirited services have made the country his debtor. His loss is a real one.\"[4][21] The presidential message of sympathy was only one of scores from all parts of the United States.[4] The Wall Street Journal ran an editorial praising him saying that it was rare to find someone so adept at both business and statesmanship.[30]\nLegacy[edit]\nThe two executors of his will each posted $18 million bonds, the largest ever in Norfolk County.[31] The \"shoe king's\" estate was worth $11,674,976 in personal property and $92,500 in real estate, including $3.9 million in 'liberty bonds and $6.2 million in Endicott Johnson stock, large amounts of other stock and bonds, and $873,990 in cash.[31][32][33][34] He left nearly the entire amount to his immediate family, with some friends and old servants receiving small bequests.[34]\nHis obituary ran in newspapers across the country. After news of his death reached the stock market, the stock price of the Endicott Johnson Corporation tumbled.[12] In 1928, his estate received a tax refund of $546,599, one of the largest in the country.[35]\nIn 1921 Endicott's widow Louise gave $35,000 to the American Legion to build a clubhouse nearby the family Estate on Whiting Ave.[36] His daughter Gertrude pre-deceased him.[4][7]\nNotes[edit]\n^ Caroline was the daughter of Ira and Louisa (French) Russell.[8] She was born in Dedham on June 15, 1853[8] and died on October 1, 1931.[9]\n^ Others include AC Brown of St Louis, Dr. WA Brooks, B. Preston Clark, FW Curtis of Reading, Pennsylvania, the Rev Paul Revere Frothingham, George F. Johnson, EW Longley, Matthew Luce, George H. Lyman, W. Rodman Peabody, James J. Phelan. AC Ratshesky, James L. Richards, Joseph B. Russell, Frederick E. Snow, John F. Stevens, James J. Storrow, and Robert Winsor.[4]\nReferences[edit]\n^ a b c d McQuillen 1889, p. 92-3.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Martin, Paul (October 31, 2011). \"The Endicott Estate: A Gem in Dedham's Rich History\". Patch.com. Retrieved April 27, 2015.\n^ a b c d e f \"Death of Henry B. Endicott\". The Wilkes-Barre Record. February 13, 1920. p. 5. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax \"Shoe and Leather Reporter\". 137. Shoe and Leather Reporter Company. 1920: 50–52. Retrieved April 27, 2015. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\n^ Heald, Hana Janjigian (December 15, 2006). \"Nova Scotia's Christmas Tree gift to Boston has a Dedham connection\". The Dedham Times. 14 (51). p. 3.\n^ a b c Parr, Jim. \"Dedham 375th Trolley Tour Script\" (pdf). Town of Dedham.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k \"Henry B. Endicott, Shoe Manufacturer, Dies in Hospital\". New-York Tribune (first ed.). February 14, 1920. p. 6. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b McQuillen 1889, p. 89.\n^ \"Mrs. Henry B. Endicott\". Daily Boston Globe. October 22, 1931. p. 19.\n^ a b \"Co-Founder of Shoe Firm Dies\". The Monroe News-Star. Monroe, Louisiana. November 29, 1948. p. 6. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"These Men Made Million Dollars of More in War-Time Profit\". Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. December 14, 1934. p. 6. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b c \"Endicott-Johnson\". New-York Tribune (1 ed.). February 14, 1920. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"United Shoe Machinery\". The Wall Street Journal. July 12, 1910. p. 2. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Boston Bank Consolidation\". The Wilkes-Barre Record. Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. December 2, 1901. p. 13. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"National Shawmut Bank\". Boston Post. April 26, 1904. p. 1. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Labor Leaders Have Great Opportunity to Bring About Needed Increase in Production\". The Sun and The New York Herald (first ed.). February 2, 1920. p. 8. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Government Brings Suit\". Altoona Tribune. Altoona, Pennsylvania. December 13, 1911. p. 8. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Boston Business Men Testify Against Brandeis\". The Wall Street Journal. February 16, 1916. p. 7. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Medical Notes\". The New England Journal of Medicine. Massachusetts Medical Society. 179 (20): 631. 1918. doi:10.1056/NEJM191811141792008.\n^ a b c d e f Coleman, Sandy (December 12, 2005). \"Historic mansion opens doors in gala celebration of 100 years\". The Boston Globe. Retrieved December 26, 2006.\n^ a b c \"H.B. Endicott, Shoe Manufacturer, Dies\". The Wall Street Journal. February 14, 1920. p. 10. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b c d e \"House of H. B. Endicott of Dedham Damaged by Fire\". Boston Daily Globe. January 13, 1904. p. 3. Retrieved April 27, 2015.\n^ a b c \"History\". The Endicott Estate. Archived from the original on December 8, 2006. Retrieved December 15, 2006.\n^ Hanson, Robert (1999). \"Stories Behind the Pictures in the Images of America: Dedham Book\". Dedham Historical Society Newsletter (December). Archived from the original on May 9, 2008.\n^ \"Google Maps: Fairbanks House to Endicott Estate\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.\n^ \"Katherine Endicott's will\" (pdf). Retrieved April 27, 2015.\n^ Gerwin, Carol (1999). \"Where the heck is the governor's mansion?\". Commonwealth (Fall).\n^ Chapter 471 of the Acts of 1969\n^ a b c \"MANY LABOR MEN AT ENDICOTT FUNDERAL: Simple Services at Home of Clarence W.Barron Gov Coolidge and Ex-Gov McCall Head Honorary Bearers\". Boston Daily Globe. February 16, 1920. p. 6. Retrieved April 25, 2015.\n^ \"Henry B. Endicott\". The Wall Street Journal. February 16, 1920. p. 7. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b \"Executors of Endicott Will\". Boston Post. April 1, 1920. p. 4. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Endicott Estate\". The Wall Street Journal. July 17, 1923. p. 9. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Shoe King's Estate Valued at $11,767,476\". The Scranton Republican. Scranton, Pennsylvania. July 16, 1923. p. 2. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ a b \"Endicott Left $10,000,000\". New-York Tribune (first ed.). February 18, 1920. p. 10. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Total of Tax Refunds Over 142 Millions\". The Morning News. Danville, Pennsylvania. December 27, 1928. p. 3. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\n^ \"Open New Clubhouse\". Boston Post. February 23, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved April 27, 2015 – via Newspapers.com.\nWorks cited[edit]\nMcQuillen, H. H. (December 1889). Historical Catalogue of the Dedham High School, Teachers and Students, 1851-1889. Dedham (Mass.). High School.\nFurther reading[edit]\nHenry B. Endicott: A Brief Memoir of His Life and His Services to the State and Nation. McGrath-Sherrill Press. 1921.\nSlafter, Carlos (1905). A Record of Education: The Schools and Teachers of Dedham, Massachusetts. 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","warc_headers":{"content-length":"22283","content-type":"text/plain","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:7dfc5a6b-c23e-453a-af9f-0791ab4a4318>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:41:31Z","warc-identified-content-language":"eng","warc-type":"conversion","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:1b3ca9c9-c3fd-4b47-9017-d7f18a6c9501>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:N2XJR3Q7S6TBVSAEVVD4RGSTWS4SFZ6E","warc-target-uri":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Bradford_Endicott"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"en","prob":0.7432217},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"en","prob":0.9798349},{"label":"en","prob":0.99767625},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96504486},{"label":"en","prob":0.87495065},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8007625},{"label":"en","prob":0.82207596},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9821155},{"label":"en","prob":0.95202506},{"label":"en","prob":0.99658567},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9987165},{"label":"en","prob":0.9900225},{"label":"en","prob":0.99219394},{"label":"en","prob":0.9828242},{"label":"en","prob":0.99531585},{"label":"en","prob":0.972355},{"label":"en","prob":0.9637306},{"label":"en","prob":0.85106176},{"label":"en","prob":0.9870338},{"label":"en","prob":0.99192244},{"label":"en","prob":0.997271},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.98392993},{"label":"en","prob":0.9779651},{"label":"en","prob":0.9860266},{"label":"en","prob":0.98708576},{"label":"en","prob":0.99588364},{"label":"en","prob":0.9591082},{"label":"en","prob":0.98926556},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.98478943},{"label":"en","prob":0.9806115},{"label":"en","prob":0.9851523},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9974736},{"label":"en","prob":0.9758625},{"label":"en","prob":0.97226477},{"label":"en","prob":0.98313427},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9956896},{"label":"en","prob":0.9841749},{"label":"en","prob":0.9705318},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96501666},{"label":"en","prob":0.98083913},{"label":"en","prob":0.9601739},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9987127},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83356255},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8402883},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8524278},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.80345994},null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82503635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8992382},{"label":"en","prob":0.883027},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8523666},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8359085},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8048068},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82138747},{"label":"en","prob":0.89610326},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.85713273},{"label":"en","prob":0.89822394},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.89710706},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.88533676},{"label":"en","prob":0.83280736},{"label":"en","prob":0.8064736},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90571195},{"label":"en","prob":0.90123266},{"label":"en","prob":0.8812965},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.856612},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8735821},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.99779063},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8177732},{"label":"en","prob":0.90339315},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8246582},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96736485},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200458},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.96017635},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8841769},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.8200161},{"label":"en","prob":0.98899454},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.887592},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.9671961},{"label":"en","prob":0.9902922},null]}}
{"content":"\"East River Drive\" redirects here. For East Drive in Central Park, see East Drive (Manhattan). For the Stanley Clarke album, see East River Drive (album).\nFranklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive\nFDR Drive\nFDR Drive highlighted in red\nRoute information\nMaintained by NYSDOT and NYCDOT\nLength\n9.68 mi[1] (15.58 km)\nExisted\n1955[2]–present\nHistory\nUpgraded in 1966[2]\nRestrictions\nNo commercial vehicles between Exits 1-7 & Exits 9-18\nNo buses north of exit 7\nMajor junctions\nSouth end\nI-478 / NY 9A in Battery Park City\nBrooklyn Bridge in Two Bridges\nNorth end\nI-278 / Harlem River Drive in East Harlem\nLocation\nCounties\nNew York\nHighway system\nNew York Highways\nInterstate\nUS\nState\nReference\nParkways\nThe Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive, commonly called the FDR Drive for short, is a 9.68-mile (15.58 km) limited-access parkway on the east side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. It starts near South and Broad Streets, just north of the Battery Park Underpass, and runs north along the East River to the 125th Street / Robert F. Kennedy Bridge / Willis Avenue Bridge interchange, where it becomes the Harlem River Drive. All of the FDR Drive is designated New York State Route 907L (NY 907L), an unsigned reference route.\nThe FDR Drive features a mix of below-grade, at-grade, and elevated sections, as well as three partially covered tunnels. The parkway is mostly three lanes in each direction, except for several small sections.\nBy law, the current weight limits on the FDR Drive from 23rd Street to the Harlem River Drive in both directions is posted 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). Buses are not allowed to use the roadway north of 23rd Street because they exceed the road's maximum clearance and weight (although some do, including the MTA's QM7, QM8, QM8 Super Express, QM11 and QM25 express buses). All commercial vehicles (including trucks) are banned from all sections of the FDR Drive, except for a short section just north of the Battery Park Underpass where the northbound lanes temporarily merge with South Street.[3]\nContents\n1 Route description\n1.1 Downtown\n1.2 Midtown\n1.3 Uptown\n2 History\n3 Transportation\n4 Exit list\n5 References\n6 External links\nRoute description[edit]\nThe East River Greenway runs below, beside, or above the FDR Drive along nearly its entire length, except for a section between 38th and 60th Streets.[4] A plaque dedicating the East River Drive is visible on the southbound roadway before entering the Gracie Mansion tunnel at 90th Street.\nDowntown[edit]\nFDR Drive approaching the Brooklyn Bridge\nFDR Drive starts at the southern tip of Manhattan at South and Whitehall Streets in the Financial District. It rises from the underground Battery Park Underpass to an elevated viaduct above South Street, with an at-grade connection to South Street at exit 1. The elevated viaduct continues northeast, with an interchange at Brooklyn Bridge at exit 2. The elevated road, also known as the South Street Viaduct, continues until Gouverneur Slip, near the Manhattan Bridge interchange (exit 3), where there are a southbound exit and northbound entrance. From here, the road is at-grade, with a southbound exit/entrance at Grand Street, exit 4.[5]\nThe FDR Drive continues north through Lower East Side and Alphabet City, and dips under Houston Street at exit 5, in a three-way interchange. It continues north as an at-grade road. Between 14th and 15th Streets, the FDR Drive passes a large Con Edison substation. The substation is surrounded by ramps for the former exit 6, a southbound exit and entrance which was closed after September 11, 2001.[5]\nBy 18th Street, the FDR Drive curves north onto an elevated viaduct above Avenue C. The elevated viaduct continues until 25th Street to serve the 23rd Street interchange at exit 7. This exit serves the neighborhood of Kips Bay. At 23rd Street, Avenue C continues as the northbound service road for the FDR Drive, while the southbound lanes split from the main highway at 25th Street.[5]\nMidtown[edit]\nFDR Drive northbound approaching the NY 25 (Queensboro Bridge) interchange\nThe FDR Drive continues north as an at-grade road, with the Waterside Plaza complex located along the East River to the east of the parkway. The southbound lanes ascend to a viaduct at 28th Street, and the southbound lanes ascend at 30th Street. There are a southbound entrance and northbound exit at ground level at 28th-30th Streets, where the southbound service road begins again. The northbound exit, labeled exit 8, serves 34th Street in Murray Hill, which is located four blocks north; the FDR Drive service road curves underneath the main highway until 36th Street. Another southbound entrance is located at 34th Street itself, and rises to the viaduct level.[5]\nAt 38th Street, the northbound-only exit 9 for 42nd Street, serving Turtle Bay, splits from FDR Drive. Exit 9 continues as an elevated ramp until the intersection of 42nd Street and First Avenue, where it becomes the westbound lanes of 42nd Street. The FDR Drive dips onto street level and merges with the northbound service road. The southbound service road continues parallel to the FDR Drive, and the southbound exit 8 splits from the parkway near 41st Street. The southbound service road then becomes the eastbound lanes of 42nd Street.[5]\nThe headquarters of the United Nations was constructed on a platform above the at-grade FDR Drive from 42nd to 48th Streets.[6] The southbound roadway is inside a later structure resembling a tunnel while the northbound roadway is located just outside of the tunnel.[5] This section is often referred to as the United Nations Tunnel, even though only the westernmost lane of the northbound roadway is under the structure.[6]\nAt 48th Street, the FDR Drive emerges from the United Nations tunnel. A northbound ramp from First Avenue merges onto the northbound roadway. The southbound roadway contains two exits: exit 10 at 49th Street, and exit 11 at 53rd Street.[5] At 54th Street, the road enters the Sutton Place Tunnel, which passes under apartment buildings on the east side of Sutton Place and York Avenue until 60th Street.[7] In this tunnel, the southbound roadway is raised and runs over the northbound roadway for northbound access to and from the Queensboro Bridge interchange (exit 12).[5] As part of the design in this area, numerous homes on the river were demolished and rebuilt or otherwise modified to accommodate the highway.[7] At 63rd Street, the southbound lanes descend to ground level, at the same elevation as the northbound lanes.[5]\nUptown[edit]\nFrom 63rd to 71st Streets, the FDR Drive passes under a series of interconnected at-grade tunnels. The segment from 63rd to 68th Street runs under an annex constructed by Rockefeller University,[8] while the section of roadway between 68th and 71st Streets runs underneath the pilotis of the NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital. Afterward, the FDR Drive continues north at ground level. There is a southbound-only entrance and exit, labeled exit 13, at 71st–73rd Streets, serving Lenox Hill on the Upper East Side. Another southbound-only entrance exists at 79th Street; there is no exit from either direction, nor is there any exit number reserved for this interchange.[5]\nFDR Drive at night\nFrom 81st to 90th streets runs a final, enclosed double-decker structure. The southbound roadway is again raised over the northbound roadway in a short segment of the tunnel between 81st and 86th Streets.[5] The promenade of Carl Schurz Park was built over the highway in 1939, near Gracie Mansion, the New York City mayor's residence.[9] There is a southbound entrance to the FDR Drive at the intersection of 92nd Street and York Avenue. York Avenue then parallels the FDR Drive until 96th Street, where York Avenue ends. The FDR Drive ascends onto a short elevated viaduct over the 96th Street interchange (exit 14) then descends to street level again.[5]\nThe remaining portion of the FDR Drive to the 125th Street interchange (exit 19) is at grade, passing through East Harlem. There is a southbound-only entrance at 102nd Street, as well as a southbound-only exit at 106th Street, labeled exit 15. At 116th Street, there is another southbound-only exit and entrance numbered exit 16. When the FDR Drive reaches 120th Street, there are three northbound exits in quick succession: exit 17 for the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge, exit 18 for the Willis Avenue Bridge, and exit 19 for 125th Street. Exit 17 also contains a southbound exit and entrance to and from the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge, and exit 19 also hosts a southbound entrance. The FDR Drive transitions into the Harlem River Drive and continues north after 125th Street.[5]\nHistory[edit]\nLooking north from 6th Street overpass\nA shorefront parkway in Manhattan along the East River was first proposed by Manhattan Borough President Julius Miller in 1929. The 3.5-mile (5.6 km) parkway would extend from South Street to 54th Street.[10] The first sections of the East River Drive were constructed in the 1930s and were designed by Robert Moses. Moses faced the difficulties of building a parkway/boulevard combination along the East River while minimizing disruptions to residents. Many property owners along the East River Drive, especially in Midtown, opposed the boulevard unless noise mitigation measures were added.[11]\nThe section from 125th Street and the Triborough Bridge ramp south to 92nd Street was completed in 1936.[12] The sections from 92nd Street down to Battery Park (with the exception of a section from 42nd to 49th Streets, located underneath the headquarters of the United Nations) were built as a boulevard running at street level.[13] The first \"downtown\" section of the boulevard, between Grand and 12th Streets, was completed in June 1937.[14] Two more downtown sections, from 12th to 14th Streets and then from 14th to 18th Streets, were opened in 1939.[15] A short connector from Grand to Montgomery Street was completed in May 1940, which meant that the boulevard was now continuous from Montgomery to 30th Streets.[16] The next month, a large stretch from 49th to 92nd Streets opened. By this point, the only contiguous section that remained to be completed was the stretch between 30th and 49th Streets.[17]\nAround this time, city officials started making plans for reconstructing existing sections of the boulevard so that several intersections would be grade-separated or double-decked. A plan to build a three-level section from 81st to 89th Streets was released in April 1940,[18] followed by an East River Drive overpass over 96th Street in June.[19] Due to a bulkhead restriction, a section from 51st to 60th Streets was already being built with two decks.[18]\nThe section of the East River Drive from 23rd to 34th Streets was completed in October 1941.[20] Known as the Bristol Basin, this section was built on wartime rubble dumped by cargo ships returning from Bristol, England, during World War II. The German Luftwaffe bombed Bristol heavily. After delivering war supplies to the British, the ships' crews loaded rubble onto the ships for ballast, then sailed back to New York, where construction crews made use of it.[21] On June 29, 1942, a plaque commemorating the use of rubble was dedicated by Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia,[22] and is currently installed at the Waterside Plaza complex. The final part of the original boulevard, between 34th and 49th Streets, opened in May 1942.[23] Future reconstruction designs from 1948 to 1966 converted the FDR Drive into the full parkway that is in use today.[13]\nUpon the death of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the East River Drive was dedicated to him in June 1945.[24] The drive is now commonly called the \"FDR Drive\".[25]\nAn elevated ramp between 18th and 25th Streets, serving as an extension of the highway south of 23rd Street, was completed in 1949,[26] replacing an at-grade section.[27] Another elevated highway above South Street, connecting the at-grade parkway north of Grand Street to the Battery Park Underpass and Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel at the southern tip of Manhattan, was completed in May 1954.[28]\nSouthbound viaduct at 28th Street in Kips Bay\nIn Kips Bay, the FDR Drive is located on a viaduct between 30th and 37th Streets. The southbound and northbound roadways rise onto a viaduct separately between 28th and 30th Streets; the southbound roadway ascends onto the viaduct at 28th Street, followed by the northbound roadway at 30th Street, and the two roadways merge into a single structure at 32nd Street. At this point, there is a two-lane shoulder on the left side of the northbound roadway, with one of the lanes cordoned off by a short concrete barrier. There is a provision for a southbound exit and northbound entrance at 30th Street, which was built in 1967 and would have connected to the Mid-Manhattan Expressway. However, after plans for the expressway were abandoned, this exit was never used, largely because there was already an exit four blocks north, at 34th Street. The unused exit was then blocked with a semi-permanent concrete barricade.[29]\nExit 6, at 15th Street, formerly passed through a Con Edison substation, which handles most of the electricity for lower Manhattan. It was closed after the September 11, 2001 attacks after city and ConEd officials concluded it was too risky to allow such easy access to such a critical piece of infrastructure.[30] The exit was permanently removed in 2014 after the New York State Department of Transportation received notification from the New York City Police Department that the exit would not be re-opened since the ConEd facility was deemed a potential terrorist target. East 15th Street, as well as a corresponding entrance ramp from 14th Street, were also closed east of Avenue C, except to ConEdison and law enforcement vehicles. All signage of exit 6 was removed in early 2016.[5]\nTransportation[edit]\nThe SIM3, SIM6, SIM10, SIM11, SIM31, X37 and X38 express buses use the FDR Drive between its start in Lower Manhattan and 23rd Street.[31][32][33] In addition, the QM7, QM8, QM8 Super Express, QM11 and QM25 use the FDR Drive between the Brooklyn Bridge exit and 34th Street[34][35]\nThe BM1, BM2, BM3 and BM4 buses use the FDR between Brooklyn Bridge and 23rd Street during the off-peak hours, but during the peak hour, \"Midtown Express\" buses skip Downtown, running directly up the FDR to 23rd.[33][36]\nExit list[edit]\nThe entire route is in the New York City borough of Manhattan.\nLocation\nmi\n[1][5][37]\nkm\nExit\nDestinations\nNotes\nBattery Park City\n0.00\n0.00 –\nNY 9A north (West Side Highway) to Hugh L. Carey Tunnel / I-278 Southern terminus; exit 1 on NY 9A\nBattery Park\n0.1–\n0.5\n0.16–\n0.80 Battery Park Underpass\nFinancial District\n0.6\n0.97 1 South Street – Battery Park, Staten Island Ferry No southbound signage for South Street\nTwo Bridges\n1.41\n2.27 2 Brooklyn Bridge, Manhattan Civic Center Access to Civic Center via Pearl Street\n2.4\n3.9 3 South Street – Manhattan Bridge Southbound exit and northbound entrance\nLower East Side\n2.6\n4.2 4 Grand Street – Williamsburg Bridge Southbound exit and entrance\n3.09\n4.97 5 East Houston Street – Williamsburg Bridge Formerly signed for Holland Tunnel\nEast Village\n3.70\n5.95 6 East 15th Street Southbound exit and entrance (via 14th Street); permanently closed since 2002 due to post-9/11 security concerns[30]\nPeter Cooper Village\n4.30\n6.92 7 East 20th Street / East 23rd Street No southbound signage for East 20th Street; also serves Avenue C\nKips Bay\n4.6\n7.4 – East 30th Street Southbound entrance only\nMurray Hill\n4.86\n7.82 8\nEast 34th Street to I-495 east (Midtown Tunnel)\n4.9\n7.9 9 East 42nd Street Northbound exit only\nMidtown East\n5.2–\n5.5\n8.4–\n8.9 Tunnel under United Nations Headquarters\n5.6\n9.0 10 East 49th Street Southbound exit and northbound entrance (from 1st Avenue)\nSutton Place\n5.8\n9.3 11 East 53rd Street Southbound exit only\n5.8–\n6.1\n9.3–\n9.8 Tunnel under Sutton Place\nUpper East Side\n6.1–\n6.3\n9.8–\n10.1 12\nEast 61st Street / East 63rd Street to NY 25 east (Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge) Northbound left exit/entrance via 61st/62nd Streets; southbound exit/entrance via 63rd Street\n6.3–\n6.7\n10.1–\n10.8 Tunnel under Rockefeller University / NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital / Hospital for Special Surgery\n6.7\n10.8 13 East 71st Street Southbound exit and entrance (from 73rd Street)\nYorkville\n7.0\n11.3 – East 79th Street Southbound entrance only\n7.2–\n7.6\n11.6–\n12.2 Tunnel under Carl Schurz Park\nEast Harlem\n7.96\n12.81 14 East 96th Street Also serves East 97th Street and York Avenue; southbound entrance via 92nd Street\n8.63\n13.89 15 East 106th Street Southbound exit and entrance (from East 102nd Street)\n9.15\n14.73 16 East 116th Street Southbound exit and entrance\n9.68\n15.58 17\nI-278 (Robert F. Kennedy Bridge) to Grand Central Parkway – Bruckner Expressway Access via unsigned NY 900G; exit 46 on I-278; also serves Randall's Island\n18\nWillis Avenue Bridge to I-87 north (Major Deegan Expressway) Northbound exit only\n– Harlem River Drive north – George Washington Bridge Continuation north\n1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi\nClosed/former\nElectronic toll collection\nIncomplete access\nFDR Drive near the Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge.\nReferences[edit]\n^ a b \"2014 Traffic Data Report for New York State\" (PDF). New York State Department of Transportation. July 22, 2015. Retrieved January 14, 2020.\n^ a b Anderson, Steve. \"FDR Drive\". NYCRoads. Retrieved January 19, 2012. [self-published source]\n^ New York City Department of Transportation (2013). \"Parkway Truck Restrictions\". New York City Department of Transportation. Retrieved June 23, 2013.\n^ \"East River Greenway inches forward with $100M cash infusion\". Curbed NY. Retrieved October 17, 2017.\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Google (January 14, 2020). \"FDR Drive\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved January 14, 2020.\n^ a b \"U. N. to Make $2,250,000 Steel Contract Soon To Start Second Unit of East River Project\" (PDF). The New York Times. June 20, 1949. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 22, 2017.\n^ a b Gray, Christopher (May 15, 1988). \"Streetscapes: Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive; Institutions Use Air Rights Over a Multilevel Marvel\". The New York Times. Retrieved May 9, 2016.\n^ Veilleux, Zach (May 14, 2014). \"NY City Council approves new Rockefeller laboratory building\". Rockefeller University. Archived from the original on May 6, 2016. Retrieved May 9, 2016. The Rockefeller University's proposal to build a two-story, 160,000-square-foot [15,000 m2] building over the FDR Drive adjacent to its campus passed an important milestone today with the City Council's vote to approve the plan.\n^ New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. \"Carl Schurz Park\". New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Retrieved May 9, 2016.\n^ \"EASE RIVER DRIVE TO COST $9,000,000 PLANNED BY MILLER; Proposal for Shore Road From South Street to 54th Laid Before Estimate Board. CITY SHARE $4,000,000 Private Owners Would Have to Pay Rest, Under Old Water Grants, Says Borough Head. LINK TO WEST SIDE IN VIEW Road Like Thames Embankment Expected to Create New Taxable Property Worth Millions. Like Victoria Embankment. Part to Be Eighty Feet Wide. EAST RIVER DRIVE PLANNED BY MILLER Plan Additional Wharfage. Eighteen Months for Building\". The New York Times. January 28, 1929. Retrieved July 3, 2018.\n^ \"Land Owners Fight East River Drive Plan; Want It Roofed, if Built, to Stifle Noise\". The New York Times. September 20, 1936. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"EAST DRIVE LINK OPENS; Southbound Lanes Ready Today From 92d to 122d Streets\". The New York Times. October 31, 1936. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ a b New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. \"East River Park Highlights\". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation.\n^ \"NEW SECTION READY ON EAST SIDE DRIVE; Mile-Long Stretch, Between Grand and 12th Sts., to Be Opened on Tuesday 35-ACRE PARK ADJOINS IT Six-Lane Auto Highway Later Will Form Part of Road Chain Circling Manhattan\". The New York Times. June 24, 1937. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"SECTION OF DRIVE ON EAST SIDE OPEN; Stretch From 14th to 18th Sts. Placed in Commission by Isaacs and Party\". The New York Times. December 28, 1939. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"DRIVE SECTION OPEN TODAY; East River Road, Montgomery to 30th St., Ready for Use\". The New York Times. May 17, 1940. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"NEW LINK IS OPENED IN EAST RIVER DRIVE; Along the Section of East River Drive Which Was Dedicated Yesterday\". The New York Times. June 19, 1940. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ a b \"DETAILS ARE GIVEN OF NEW DRIVE LINK; Isaacs Makes Public Description of Triple-Deck Section\". The New York Times. April 29, 1940. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"City to Act Today on East Drive Link; Plan for Ninety-Sixth Street Overpass Along the East River Drive\". The New York Times. June 6, 1940. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"EAST RIVER DRIVE GETS A NEW LINK; Mayor Hails It as Example of 'Perfect Engineering and Clean Financing'\". The New York Times. October 23, 1941. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ Pollak, Michael (June 26, 2009). \"FYI Column\". The New York Times. Retrieved June 28, 2009.\n^ \"Bricks of Bombed British Homes Used in City Highway Are Marked; La Guardia Warns at Dedication That We May Get Bombings Like Those of Britain -- Haggard Stresses Anglo-U.S. Unity\". timesmachine.nytimes.com. Retrieved July 13, 2021.\n^ \"EAST RIVER DRIVE IS OPENED IN FULL; Final Link, 34th to 49th Sts., Completes 7 1/2-Mile Stretch That Cost $46,000,000 WORK OF 3 BOROUGH HEADS Mayor Praises Cooperation of Levy, Isaacs, Nathan and Private Industries\". The New York Times. May 26, 1942. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"Council Votes to Name East Drive for Roosevelt\". The New York Times. June 29, 1945. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (December 20, 2001). \"FDR Drive: Historical Sign\". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation.\n^ Bennett, Charles G. (June 7, 1949). \"MAYOR AND ROGERS OPEN RAISED ROAD; East Side Span Takes Express Highway From 18th to 25th St. -- Other Links Pushed\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"City Will Raise Part of East River Drive\". The New York Times. March 8, 1948. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"UNDERPASS LINKED TO EAST SIDE DRIVE; Ceremony at Battery End of Elevated Highway Officially Completes Peripheral Road MAYOR LAUDS ENGINEERS Borough President Speaks at Gathering of 2,000 at South Street and Coenties Slip\". The New York Times. May 29, 1954. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 22, 2018.\n^ \"NEW EXIT RAMP JUST A DEAD END; East River Drive Connects to an Unbuilt Expressway A Link for Expressway 'Not a Mistake'\". The New York Times. November 26, 1967. Retrieved July 6, 2018.\n^ a b Siff, Andrew. \"Since 2002, FDR Drive's Exit 6 Mysteriously Says 'Closed'\". New York: WNBC. Retrieved February 10, 2014.\n^ MTA Regional Bus Operations. \"SIM3 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"SIM6 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"SIM10 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"SIM11 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"SIM31 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"X37 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"X38 bus schedule\" (PDF).\n^ \"Staten Island Bus Map\" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. January 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2020.\n^ a b \"Brooklyn Bus Map\" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. October 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2020.\n^ \"Queens Bus Map\" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. September 2019. Retrieved December 1, 2020.\n^ MTA Regional Bus Operations. \"QM7 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"QM8 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"QM25 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"QM11 bus schedule\" (PDF).\n^ MTA Regional Bus Operations. \"BM1 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"BM2 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"BM3 bus schedule\" (PDF).\nMTA Regional Bus Operations. \"BM4 bus schedule\" (PDF).\n^ \"New York County Inventory Listing\" (CSV). New York State Department of Transportation. August 7, 2015. Retrieved September 5, 2017.\nExternal links[edit]\nRoute map:\nKML file (edit • help)\nTemplate:Attached KML/FDR Drive\nKML is not from Wikidata\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive.\nFDR Drive at Alps' Roads\nFDR Drive (Greater New York Roads)\nAuthority control\nGeneral\nVIAF\n1\nWorldCat\nNational libraries\nUnited States\nOther\nFaceted Application of Subject Terminology\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FDR_Drive&oldid=1037975313\"\nCategories:\nParkways in New York City\nMonuments and memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States\nTransportation in Manhattan\nHidden categories:\nAll articles with self-published sources\nArticles with self-published sources from October 2016\nArticles with short description\nShort description is different from Wikidata\nUse mdy dates from October 2016\nInfobox road instances in New York (state)\nArticles using KML not from Wikidata\nCommons category link is on Wikidata\nArticles with VIAF identifiers\nArticles with LCCN identifiers\nArticles with FAST identifiers\nArticles with WORLDCATID identifiers\nPages using the Kartographer extension\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nIn other projects\nWikimedia Commons\nLanguages\nAzərbaycanca\nDeutsch\nEesti\nEspañol\nفارسی\nFrançais\n한국어\nNederlands\n日本語\nNorsk bokmål\nPortuguês\nРусский\nSvenska\nEdit links\nThis page was last edited on 9 August 2021, at 19:46 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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{"content":"Egypt Sherrod is an American radio and television personality, as well as real estate broker. She is best known as host of HGTV's Flipping Virgins and its long running show, Property Virgins. She is also the CEO of the Atlanta-based Egypt Sherrod Real Estate Group.[1]\nContents\n1 Early life and education\n2 Career\n3 Accolades\n4 Personal life\n5 Filmography\n6 Podcasts\n7 Bibliography\n8 References\n9 External links\nEarly life and education[edit]\nEgypt Sherrod was born on November 16, 1976 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[citation needed] Growing up in her grandparents' home, she slept in a closet that only fit her bed; as a child she dreamed to one day have a closet that was bigger than her bedroom.[2]\nShe earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in broadcasting and telecommunications from Temple University.[3] She also studied theater at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts. She holds the designation of Master Certified Negotiator, Accredited Buyer Representative, Certified Residential Specialist and Certified Distressed Property Expert.[citation needed]\nCareer[edit]\nSherrod began hosting on a jazz station at 18.[2] At 19, she got a job as a radio station music director—the youngest in the country.[2] Growing up with a father and uncle who were real estate brokers,[4] she saw real estate as a way to earn retirement money and as a \"fallback\" to her career in radio. She bought her first home at 24-years-old.[2] Around that time, She bought her first property at 24-years-old Newark, New Jersey[2] Much of her profits were going to fees for her real estate agents,[5] so she became a licensed agent in 2002.[2] She was also a correspondent on the Maury show.[6]\nI realized I had gone from being a girl to womanhood when I start taking responsibility for my actions and not being afraid to apologize, being okay with starting over being 100% comfortable in my own skin, learning the importance of humility, and being well rounded as a person, not one dimensional.[7]\n2011 interview with XONeCole\nShe was the number one radio personality for New York City’s WBLS 107.5,[2] where she interviewed Prince, Tyler Perry, and Oprah.[4] The program was syndicated in more than 60 cities throughout the US.[citation needed] Her access to celebrities elevated her real estate clientele.[8] Growing tired of \"gossip and entertainment reports,\" she thought about transitioning out of radio.[7] She relates that, while hosting her show, she got a call from a casting director who was exploring Sherrod's interest in hosting a program that would become Property Virgins.[8] She agreed to audition and secured the role.[8] Four episodes into filming, however, she learned that she was pregnant and, fearing she may lose her job, hid it from the producers.[7] To her delight, it was not an issue.[7] With a child on the way, she considered the challenge of maintaining a work/life balance in New York and, desiring something new, she considered making a change.[6][5] In March 2012, Sherrod accepted an offer to be the midday host of WVEE V-103 in Atlanta. a city she had frequented as a child when visiting relatives.[6] While there, she conducted interviews with celebrities, including Keith Sweat, Musiq Soulchild, Jazze Pha, The Braxtons and Marsha Ambrosius.[6] The show Property Virgins moved to Atlanta to accommodate her, and she began filming on the weekends.[6] However, overwhelmed with the demands of her family life and career, as well as a bout of postpartum depression, she left her job with the radio station.[7]\nShe has made recurring appearances as the home buyers/sellers “go-to girl” on NBC's Today Show,[9] CNBC, FOX,[10] CNN, HLN as well as being featured on Fast & Company, Yahoo, Homes.com, Rolling Stone, Black Enterprise,[11] and a host of other publications and digital platforms. She wrote Keep Calm...It's Just Real Estate: Your No-Stress Guide To Buying A Home,[12]” on Running Press/Perseus Books which became a bestseller in its genre.[citation needed]\nShe stars in the 2012 film Life, Love, Soul.[13] Sherrod has hosted HGTV’s \"White House Christmas Special\", the Rose Parade, and the HGTV \"Urban Oasis\" Giveaways.[14] Prior to hosting for HGTV, Sherrod also hosted \"Home Delivery\" for Tribune's syndicated networks.\nSherrod has been sought out as a speaker and moderator. She hosted the stage at Oprah's \"The Life You Want Tour.\" Sherrod has been invited as a recurring ‘Hot Topics’ guest and lifestyle pundit on programs such as Dish Nation, Steve Harvey,[15] Showbiz Tonight, and Larry Wilmore Show. Sherrod will host the reunion special of the television soap opera series from the Oprah Winfrey Network, The Haves and the Have Nots, airing as part of the program's series finale package on July 27, 2021 and August 3, 2021.[16]\nAccolades[edit]\nSherrod has also received the Humanitarian Citation from the Borough of New York, State Assembly Citation as a Humanitarian and Community Advocate, as well as the New York City Council Citation for Community Service.[17] She was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for her book \"Keep Calm It's Just Real Estate\",[18] received the MISSION Award from WEEN (Women In Entertainment Empowerment Network), and was named one of Network Journal's \"40 Under 40,\" and #2 in Radio and Records’ \"Power Player on the Rise\" Top 10 list, 105.1 FM, May 14, 2006, and also received the \"Executive to Watch\" Award from NABFEME (National Association of Black Female Executives in Music & Entertainment).[citation needed] She was chosen as one of Network Journal's 40 Under 40.[citation needed]\nPersonal life[edit]\nIn 2008, Sherrod founded The Egypt Cares Family Foundation, a non-profit dedicated to financial empowerment and awareness.[7] The “rising stars boot camp” is designed for children aged 8–17 who want to work in radio and television.[19] The \"Egypt Cares Give Back Tour\" is an annual coat and toy drive, which has garnered proclamations from the Brooklyn President at the time, Marty Markowitz.[citation needed]\nSherrod married Mike Jackson, a DJ who goes by Fadelf,[6] on September 11, 2010.[20] Sherrod and Jackson have two daughters together: Kendall (born in January 2012) and Harper (born February 2019).[21][22] Jackson has a daughter from a previous relationship.[1]\nFilmography[edit]\nDish Nation – Guest host\nHome Delivery – Co-host[23]\nProperty Virgins (2012–present) – Host\nFlipping Virgins (2012–present) – Host[24]\nAll-Star Halloween Special (2015) – Host\nGood Morning America (2016)\nBrother Vs. Brother (2016–present) – Celebrity judge\nHome & Family (2016) – Guest host[25]\nWhite House Christmas Special (2016) – Host\nSteve Harvey (2017)\nUrban Oasis (2017-2018) – Host\nPodcasts[edit]\nLittle Black Dress with Rocsi Diaz and Nina Parker (2017) – Guest[26]\nRedefining Wealth with Patrice Washington (2018) – Guest[27]\nBibliography[edit]\nKeep Calm.. It’s Just Real Estate\nReferences[edit]\n^ a b \"Egypt Sherrod Real Estate - Real Estate Agent Atlanta GA\". Egypt Sherrod Real Estate. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ a b c d e f g Robertson, Iyana (March 18, 2015). \"Egypt Sherrod Talks Real Estate And Her New Book\". Vibe. Retrieved February 7, 2019.\n^ Penn, Charli (January 13, 2012). \"Best Friends and Business Partners Egypt Sherrod and Amber Noble-Garland on Friendship and Motherhood\". Essence.\n^ a b Cornelius, Ray (October 25, 2012). \"HGTV's Egypt Sherrod dishes about ATL, listening to your 'inner voice' and interviewing Oprah! – raycornelius.com\". Ray Cornelius. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ a b Wright, Kweli (September 17, 2015). \"Exclusive Interview: HGTV Host Egypt Sherrod On Her Career Path, Part 1\". MadameNoire. Retrieved February 7, 2019.\n^ a b c d e f Ho, Rodney (March 19, 2012). \"Exclusive interview with Egypt Sherrod, new host of V-103 (who started 3/19)\". ajc. Retrieved February 7, 2019.\n^ a b c d e f McBride, Kiah (September 11, 2017). \"Egypt Sherrod Gets Candid On Her Big Leap From Radio To Real Estate\". xoNecole. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ a b c Preston, Bobbie (July 30, 2015). \"Egypt Sherrod From HGTV's Property Virgins\". Homes.com. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ \"HGTV's Egypt Sherrod shows how to raise the value of your home\". TODAY.com. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ FOX 5 Atlanta, HGTV host Egypt Sherrod talks home trends with Alyse Eady, retrieved February 6, 2019\n^ \"Egypt Sherrod's 3 Keys to Making Money in Real Estate\". Black Enterprise. February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ \"KEEP CALM… IT'S JUST REAL ESTATE: Your No-Stress Guide to Buying a Home\". www.keepcalmitsjustrealestate.com. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ Rhett, Starrene (March 20, 2012). \"Egypt Sherrod & Terri J. Vaughn Explain 'Life, Love, Soul'\". Black Enterprise.\n^ \"10 Things You Didn't Know About Egypt Sherrod\". HGTV. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ Egypt Sherrod, Egypt Sherrod- Hosting Reel, retrieved February 6, 2019\n^ \"The Haves and the Have Nots: OWN to Air Two-Part Reunion Special\". Tvseriesfinale. July 17, 2021.\n^ http://www.egyptsherrod.com/biography[dead link]\n^ Obenson, Tambay A. (December 8, 2015). \"The 47th NAACP Image Awards Nominees Announced\". IndieWire. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ \"Q&A with Egypt Sherrod - GoGoMix\". The GOGO Mix. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ MISICK, BOBBI (October 4, 2010). \"Bridal Bliss Exclusive: Egypt and Mike\". Essence. Retrieved February 7, 2019.\n^ SANGWENI, YOLANDA (January 12, 2012). \"Egypt Sherrod Welcomes a Baby Girl\". Essence. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ Sherrod, Egypt (February 7, 2019). \"Egypt Sherrod on Instagram: \"We thought we had everything, then you arrived. Now we are complete! Welcome to the world #HarperSkye ❤️❤️❤️❤️ Our little angel arrived at…\"\". Instagram. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ Julia (January 5, 2012). \"Sandra Rinomato Quits \"Property Virgins\"\". Hooked on Houses. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ \"Egypt Sherrod\". IMDb. Retrieved February 6, 2019.\n^ \"Tuesday, April 21st, 2015 | Home & Family\". Hallmark Channel. April 21, 2015. Retrieved February 8, 2019.\n^ Sherrod, Egypt (March 30, 2017). \"Egypt Sherrod\". podcast (Interview). Interviewed by Nina Parker. Little Black Dress with Rocsi Diaz and Nina Parker. Retrieved February 10, 2019.\n^ Sherrod, Egypt (January 18, 2018). \"Egypt Sherrod: Simplicity Drives Success\". podcast (Interview). Interviewed by Patrice Washington. Redefining Wealth with Patrice Washington. Retrieved February 10, 2019.\nExternal links[edit]\nOfficial website\nReal Estate Website\nEgypt Sherrod at IMDb\nRetrieved from \"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt_Sherrod&oldid=1043077382\"\nCategories:\n1975 births\nAfrican-American radio personalities\nAfrican-American television personalities\nLiving people\nTelevision personalities from Philadelphia\nTemple University alumni\nTisch School of the Arts alumni\nHidden categories:\nAll articles with dead external links\nArticles with dead external links from September 2021\nArticles with short description\nShort description is different from Wikidata\nUse mdy dates from June 2019\nArticles with hCards\nAll articles with unsourced statements\nArticles with unsourced statements from February 2019\nArticles with unsourced statements from July 2012\nNavigation menu\nPersonal tools\nNot logged in\nTalk\nContributions\nCreate account\nLog in\nNamespaces\nArticle\nTalk\nVariants\nViews\nRead\nEdit\nView history\nMore\nSearch\nNavigation\nMain page\nContents\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nAbout Wikipedia\nContact us\nDonate\nContribute\nHelp\nLearn to edit\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nUpload file\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nCite this page\nWikidata item\nPrint/export\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nAdd links\nThis page was last edited on 8 September 2021, at 06:53 (UTC).\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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{"content":"Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants.\nElena Ferrante\nBiographie\nNaissance\n1943\nNaples\nPseudonyme\nElena Ferrante\nNationalité\nItalienne\nActivités\nRomancière, écrivaine, scénariste, traductrice\nAutres informations\nGenre artistique\nRoman\nSite web\n(en) elenaferrante.com\nŒuvres principales\nL'Amie prodigieuse\nmodifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata\nElena Ferrante (née, selon ses propres dires, en 1943 à Naples) est une romancière, nouvelliste et essayiste italienne.\nSommaire\n1 Biographie\n2 Œuvre\n2.1 Romans\n2.1.1 Saga L'Amie prodigieuse\n2.1.2 Autres romans\n2.2 Recueil de nouvelles pour enfants\n2.3 Essais\n3 Notes et références\n4 Annexes\n4.1 Article connexe\n4.2 Liens externes\nBiographie[modifier | modifier le code]\nLa romancière derrière le pseudonyme tient absolument à rester dans l'ombre[1] et refuse par conséquent la publicité et les apparitions télévisées, acceptant seulement en de rares occasions les interviews écrites[2]. Lors de celles-ci, elle a reconnu être une femme, mère de famille, et que son œuvre était d'inspiration autobiographique[3]. En particulier, dans La frantumaglia, elle révèle à ses lecteurs des aspects de la personnalité d'Elena Ferrante en lui donnant notamment une origine (mère couturière s'exprimant en napolitain) une date (1943) et un lieu de naissance (Naples)[4].\nSelon certaines hypothèses, il pourrait s'agir d'Anita Raja (de), éditrice et traductrice italienne de Christa Wolf en particulier, ou bien de son mari, l’écrivain Domenico Starnone[NdlR 1],[5],[6]. Le 2 octobre 2016, dans quatre médias internationaux, Il Sole 24 Ore[7] en Italie, Mediapart[8] en France, Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung[9] en Allemagne et The New York Review of Books[10] aux États-Unis, le journaliste Claudio Gatti affirme avoir percé le mystère en observant une corrélation forte entre les droits d'auteur qu'Edizioni E/O, la maison éditrice d'Elena Ferrante, perçoit de ses ouvrages, et les honoraires que la société verse la même année à la traductrice Anita Raja (de). Ni Anita Raja, ni Edizioni E/O n'ont confirmé ou démenti cette hypothèse déjà envisagée depuis quelques années comme plausible par plusieurs personnes.\nLors d'un entretien non enregistré avec le journaliste italien Tommaso Debenedetti, paru dans le quotidien El Mundo (Espagne), Anita Raja aurait confirmé être Elena Ferrante[11]. Il est important néanmoins de préciser que Tommaso Debenedetti s'est spécialisé depuis des décennies, selon ses propres dires, dans la publication de fausses nouvelles « afin de démontrer à quel point il est facile de manipuler l'opinion sur les réseaux sociaux ».\nLe lectorat est partagé entre curiosité[12] et indignation en réaction à ce qu'il considère comme une investigation intrusive[13],[14].\nEn 2016 l'entreprise suisse OrphanAlytics compare par une analyse statistique le style de l'auteur Domenico Starnone avec celui d'Elena Ferrante et conclut qu'il existe de très nettes similitudes entre les deux[15],[16].\nUne analyse scientifique basée sur la comparaison des œuvres d'Elena Ferrante avec un corpus de cent cinquante livres italiens par quarante auteurs différents a aussi attribué, sur la base du vocabulaire utilisé, la paternité des œuvres à Domenico Starnone[17]. Ce travail d'investigation a été conduit par l'université de Padoue et des experts de Pologne, France, Grèce, Italie, Suisse et États-Unis ont participé à cette analyse. Les investigations ont aussi conclu qu'il s'agissait du travail d'une seule plume, à savoir celle de Domenico Starnone (qui est aussi le mari d’Anita Raja, traductrice qui avait été désignée par C. Gatti comme Elena Ferrante). Afin d'arriver à ce résultat, neuf méthodes différentes en attribution d'auteur ont été appliquées sur le corpus de romans italiens (recourir à une seule méthode est trop peu fiable).\nTraduits dans quarante langues, les livres d’Elena Ferrante bénéficient d'un lectorat nombreux en Europe et en Amérique du nord. En 2015, Roberto Saviano propose la candidature de son roman L’amica geniale au prix Strega, ce que l’autrice accepte[18].\nElle est citée, par le magazine Time, parmi les cent personnalités les plus influentes au monde, en 2016[19].\nŒuvre[modifier | modifier le code]\nRomans[modifier | modifier le code]\nSaga L'Amie prodigieuse[modifier | modifier le code]\nL'amica geniale (2011)\nL'Amie prodigieuse, traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2014, 388 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-013862-3)\nStoria del nuovo cognome (2012)\nLe Nouveau Nom (L'Amie prodigieuse, vol. 2), traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2016, 560 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-014546-1)\nStoria di chi fugge e di chi resta (2013)\nCelle qui fuit et celle qui reste (L'Amie prodigieuse, vol. 3), traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2017, 800 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-017840-7)\nStoria della bambina perduta (2014)\nL'Enfant perdue (L'Amie prodigieuse, vol. 4), traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2018, (ISBN 978-2-07-269931-3)\nAutres romans[modifier | modifier le code]\nL'amore molesto (1992)\nL'Amour harcelant, traduit par Jean-Noël Schifano, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 1995, 181 p. (ISBN 2-07-073305-X)\nUn film, L'Amour meurtri, a été tiré du roman par Mario Martone en 1995.\nI giorni dell'abbandono (2002)[20]\nLes Jours de mon abandon, traduit par Italo Passamonti, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2004, 225 p. (ISBN 2-07-076739-6)\nLa figlia oscura (2006)\nPoupée volée, traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2009, 175 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-078571-1)\nCronache del mal d'amore (2012)\nLa vita bugiarda degli adulti (2019)\nLa Vie mensongère des adultes, traduit par Elsa Damien, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2020, 416 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-289921-8)\nRecueil de nouvelles pour enfants[modifier | modifier le code]\nLa spiaggia di notte (2007)\nEssais[modifier | modifier le code]\nLa frantumaglia (2003), réédition augmentée en 2016\nFrantumaglia. L'écriture et ma vie, traduit par Nathalie Bauer, Éditions Gallimard, coll. « Du monde entier », 2019, 464 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-273467-0)\nL'invenzione occasionale (2019)\nChroniques du hasard, traduit par Elsa Damien, Éditions Gallimard, 2019, 176 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-287109-2)\nNotes et références[modifier | modifier le code]\n↑ Philippe Ridet, Le Monde du samedi 21 mars, supl. culture et idées, p. 6, « Elena Ferrante, l’écrivain(e) masqué(e) », sur Le Monde, 19 mars 2015 (consulté le 23 mars 2015 )\n↑ Meghan O'Rourke, « Elena Ferrante: the global literary sensation nobody knows », sur the Guardian, 31 octobre 2014 (consulté le 23 mars 2015 )\n↑ Delphine Peras, « Elena Ferrante, énigme littéraire fascinante », sur lexpress.fr, 26 juin 2016 (consulté le 14 octobre 2016 )\n↑ La Frantumaglia, Elena Ferrante, Rome, Ed. e/o, 2003, 183 p. (ISBN 88-7641-575-0) (notice BnF no FRBNF39144797) (présentation en ligne)\n↑ {{Lien web , | auteur = Lizzy Davies | titre = Who is the real Italian novelist writing as Elena Ferrante? | url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/15/who-italian-novelist-elena-ferrante | site = the Guardian | en ligne le = 15 octobre 2014 | consulté le = 23 mars 2015}}.\n↑ Amaury Giraud, « Et si Elena Ferrante était un homme... et une femme ? », sur Le Figaro.fr, 15 janvier 2018 (consulté le 13 septembre 2020 )\n↑ (it) « Ecco la vera identità di Elena Ferrante », Claudio Gatti, Il Sole 24 Ore, 2 octobre 2016 (lire en ligne)\n↑ « La vraie “Elena Ferrante” », Claudio Gatti, Mediapart, 2 octobre 2016 (lecture réservée aux abonnés)\n↑ (de) Claudio Gatti, « Wer ist Elena F.? », sur faz.net, 2 octobre 2016 (consulté le 14 octobre 2016 ) .\n↑ (en) « Elena Ferrante: An Answer? », Claudio Gatti, The New York Review of Books, 2 octobre 2016 (lire en ligne)\n↑ (es) « Anita Raja a Tommaso Debenedetti: \"Yo soy Elena Ferrante\" », El Mundo,‎ 2016 (lire en ligne, consulté le 18 février 2018 ).\n↑ « Elle est lue dans le monde entier, mais personne ne sait qui elle est. Visite guidée du Naples d’Elena Ferrante. », Biblio Obs (lire en ligne).\n↑ « La véritable identité d'Elena Ferrante révélée », Biblio Obs, 2 octobre 2016 (lire en ligne)\n↑ « L'identité d'Elena Ferrante, auteur de L'Amie prodigieuse enfin établie ? », Françoise Dargent, Le Figaro, 4 octobre 2016 (lire en ligne)\n↑ Guy Genilloud et Claude-Alain Roten, « Détermination par stylométrie de l’auteur probable du corpus Ferrante : Domenico Starnone », 11 octobre 2016 (consulté le 26 décembre 2020 )\n↑ Pierre de Gasquet, « Les vrais ressorts de la « folie Ferrante » », 12 janvier 2018 (consulté le 26 décembre 2020 )\n↑ J. Savoy: « Elena Ferrante Unmasked », 4 octobre 2017 (vers la publication)\n↑ « Elena Ferrante: “Accetto la candidatura allo Strega” », sur Repubblica.it, 24 février 2015 (consulté le 23 mars 2015 ).\n↑ (en) « The 100 Most Influential People », sur le site du Time magazine (consulté le 6 février 2017 ).\n↑ James Wood, « Women on the Verge - The New Yorker », sur The New Yorker, 21 janvier 2013 (consulté le 23 mars 2015 )\nNdlR :\n↑ La notice d'autorité du Service bibliothécaire national italien (lire en ligne) donne 1943 et Naples comme année et ville de naissance de l'auteur, année de naissance qui est aussi celle d'Anita Raja (de) et de Domenico Starnone\nAnnexes[modifier | modifier le code]\nArticle connexe[modifier | modifier le code]\nThomas Pynchon\nLiens externes[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotices d'autorité :\nFichier d’autorité international virtuel\nInternational Standard Name Identifier\nCiNii\nBibliothèque nationale de France (données)\nSystème universitaire de documentation\nBibliothèque du Congrès\nGemeinsame Normdatei\nService bibliothécaire national\nBibliothèque nationale de la Diète\nBibliothèque nationale d’Espagne\nBibliothèque royale des Pays-Bas\nBibliothèque nationale d’Israël\nBibliothèque universitaire de Pologne\nBibliothèque nationale de Catalogne\nBibliothèque nationale de Suède\nRéseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale\nBibliothèque nationale d’Australie\nBase de bibliothèque norvégienne\nWorldCat\n(en) Site officiel\nNotices dans des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes :\nDictionnaire universel des créatrices\nEnciclopedia delle donne\nEncyclopædia Universalis\nEncyclopédie Treccani\nHrvatska Enciklopedija\nSwedish Nationalencyklopedin\nMunzinger Archiv\nStore norske leksikon\nRessource relative au spectacle :\nLes Archives du spectacle\nRessource relative à l'audiovisuel :\n(en) Internet Movie Database\nRessource relative à la littérature :\n(en) The Paris Review\n(it) « Lasciate a Ferrante il diritto all'assenza », sur Repubblica.it, Repubblica, 4 octobre 2016 (consulté le 4 octobre 2016 )\nPortail de la littérature italienne\nPortail de Naples\nCe document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elena_Ferrante&oldid=185795074 ».\nCatégories :\nÉcrivain italien du XXe siècle\nÉcrivain italien du XXIe siècle\nRomancier italien du XXe siècle\nRomancier italien du XXIe siècle\nEssayiste italien du XXe siècle\nEssayiste italien du XXIe siècle\nNom de plume\nNaissance en 1943\nNaissance à Naples\nPseudonyme (identité inconnue)\nPersonnalité connue sous un pseudonyme\nCatégories cachées :\nArticle contenant un appel à traduction en allemand\nWikipédia:ébauche femme de lettres italienne\nPage utilisant P569\nPage utilisant P19\nPage utilisant P742\nPage utilisant P27\nPage utilisant P106\nPage utilisant P136\nPage utilisant P856\nPage utilisant P800\nArticle à illustrer Biographie\nArticle utilisant l'infobox Biographie2\nArticle utilisant une Infobox\nArticle de Wikipédia avec notice d'autorité\nPage pointant vers des bases externes\nPage pointant vers des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes\nPage utilisant P7578\nPage utilisant P6488\nPage utilisant P3219\nPage utilisant P3365\nPage utilisant P7982\nPage utilisant P3222\nPage utilisant P1284\nPage utilisant P4342\nPage utilisant P1977\nPage pointant vers des bases relatives au spectacle\nPage utilisant P345\nPage pointant vers des bases relatives à l'audiovisuel\nPage utilisant P5414\nPage pointant vers des bases relatives à la littérature\nPortail:Littérature italienne/Articles liés\nPortail:Littérature/Articles liés\nPortail:Italie/Articles liés\nPortail:Europe/Articles liés\nPortail:Naples/Articles liés\nPortail:Campanie/Articles liés\nWikipédia:Article biographique\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Culture et arts\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Entreprises\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 25 août 2021 à 16:24.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des 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{"content":"Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catégorie:Pilote_automobile_suisse&oldid=126486098 ».\nCatégories :\nPilote automobile par nationalité\nSportif suisse\nSport automobile en Suisse\nCatégories cachées :\nProjet:Sport automobile/Catégories liées\nProjet:Sport/Catégories liées\nProjet:Suisse/Catégories liées\nProjet:Europe/Catégories liées\nProjet:Biographie/Catégories liées\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 25 mai 2016 à 11:45.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis.","warc_headers":{"warc-type":"conversion","content-type":"text/plain","warc-target-uri":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Pilote_automobile_suisse","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:5a882bb1-99d6-4347-9c8c-ae352487e6e5>","warc-identified-content-language":"fra","content-length":"932","warc-block-digest":"sha1:PCTUZ3EDJVLGQ36T7G2UQXYZUOO7TE32","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:53:28Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:4176253e-c35f-4617-bd96-906761a0753f>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"fr","prob":0.9843168},"annotation":["short_sentences"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"fr","prob":0.9565792},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000358},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9940752},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98004025},{"label":"fr","prob":0.86811966},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000174},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9987306},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9999824},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9999181},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9999049},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9998033},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99299663},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99000746},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98900306}]}}
{"content":"Jelle Zijlstra[1], né le 27 août 1918 à Oosterbierum et mort le 23 décembre 2001 à Wassenaar, est un économiste et homme d'État néerlandais membre du Parti antirévolutionnaire. Il est Premier ministre des Pays-Bas entre le 22 novembre 1966 et le 5 avril 1967 et président de la Banque centrale néerlandaise du 1er mai 1967 au 1er janvier 1982 . Très respecté pour son expertise et son intégrité[2], il obtient le 30 avril 1983 , le titre honorifique de ministre d'État.\nSommaire\n1 Biographie\n1.1 Politique\n2 Notes et références\n3 Liens externes\nBiographie[modifier | modifier le code]\nJelle Zijlstra est né à Oosterbierum le 27 août 1918 . Après avoir terminé ses études secondaires, il étudie à l'École d'économie Pays-Bas (aujourd'hui Université Érasme de Rotterdam). Ses études ont été interrompues à deux reprises : d'abord par sa période de service militaire et plus tard quand il a dû aller se cacher en 1942 après avoir refusé de signer le serment de fidélité exigé aux étudiants par l'occupation allemande. Même ainsi, il a complété son diplôme en économie en octobre 1945.\nImmédiatement après l'avoir obtenu, Zijlstra est devenu assistant de recherche à l'École d'économie des Pays-Bas, promu un an plus tard au poste d'assistant de recherche principal et en 1947 à celui de conférencier. En 1948, il a reçu un doctorat pour sa thèse sur la vitesse de circulation de l'argent et son incidence sur la valeur de la monnaie et l'équilibre monétaire. La même année, il a été nommé professeur d'économie théorique à l'Université libre d'Amsterdam.\nPolitique[modifier | modifier le code]\nIl était membre du Parti antirévolutionnaire, qui a été absorbé en 1980 dans l'Appel démocrate-chrétien. Il a dirigé le Parti antirévolutionnaire à deux reprises, du 23 avril 1956 au 3 octobre 1956 et du 29 décembre 1958 au 26 mai 1959 .\nJelle Zijlstra en tant que ministre des Finances, arrive avec sa femme Hetty Bloksma au Prinsjesdag de 1961, avec la valise du budget d'État.\nCourtement député du 1er juillet 1956 au 3 octobre de la même année, il fut chef de groupe à la seconde Chambre du 14 juin 1956 jusqu'à sa démission du mandat. Il est devenu entre le 2 septembre 1952 et le 24 juillet 1963 , successivement ministre des Affaires économiques dans le cabinet Drees III et IV et Beel II. Il a également été ministre des Finances dans le cabinet Beel II et De Quay.\nÀ la suite de sa carrière ministérielle, Zijlstra effectue un retour à l'Université libre d'Amsterdam comme professeur de finances publiques, mais il a également été du 25 juin 1963 au 22 novembre 1966 sénateur. Après la chute du cabinet Cals, Zijlstra dirigea un gouvernement provisoire, cumulant les postes de Premier ministre des Pays-Bas et de ministre des Finances entre le 22 novembre 1966 et 5 avril 1967 .\nDe 1967 jusqu'à 1981, il a été président de la Banque des Pays-Bas et au cours de cette période, également président de la Banque des règlements internationaux à Bâle. Il a siégé dans plusieurs conseils d'administration dans les secteurs public et privé.\nZijlstra est mort à Wassenaar le 23 décembre 2001 à l'âge de 83 ans[3].\nNotes et références[modifier | modifier le code]\n↑ prononcé en néerlandais : [jɛlə zɛilstrɐ].\n↑ (nl) Dr J. Zijlstra, biographie sur minfin.nl.\n↑ (nl) Oud-premier Zijlstra overleden\nLiens externes[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotices d'autorité :\nFichier d’autorité international virtuel\nInternational Standard Name Identifier\nCiNii\nBibliothèque nationale de France (données)\nSystème universitaire de documentation\nBibliothèque du Congrès\nGemeinsame Normdatei\nBibliothèque nationale de la Diète\nBibliothèque royale des Pays-Bas\nBibliothèque universitaire de Pologne\nRéseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale\nBase de bibliothèque norvégienne\nWorldCat Id\nWorldCat\nNotices dans des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes :\nBiografisch Woordenboek van Nederland\nBiografisch Portaal van Nederland\nMunzinger Archiv\n(nl) Biographie officielle\n(nl) Fiche parlementaire\nv · m\nChefs du gouvernement des Pays-Bas depuis 1848\nPrésidents du Conseil des ministres\n(1848-1945)\n1848 : Gerrit Schimmelpenninck · 1848-1849 : Jacobus Mattheüs de Kempenaer · 1849-1853 : Johan Rudolf Thorbecke · 1853-1856 : Floris Adriaan van Hall · 1856-1858 : Justinus van der Brugghen · 1858-1860 : Jan Jacob Rochussen · 1860-1861 : Floris Adriaan van Hall · 1861 : Jacob van Zuylen van Nijevelt · 1861-1862 : Schelto van Heemstra · 1862-1866 : Johan Rudolf Thorbecke · 1866 : Isaäc Dignus Fransen van de Putte · 1866-1868 : Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt · 1868-1871 : Pieter Philip van Bosse · 1871-1872 : Johan Rudolf Thorbecke · 1872-1874 : Gerrit de Vries · 1874-1877 : Jan Heemskerk · 1877-1879 : Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello · 1879-1883 : Theo van Lynden van Sandenburg · 1883-1888 : Jan Heemskerk · 1888-1891 : Æneas Mackay · 1891-1894 : Gijsbert van Tienhoven · 1894-1897 : Joan Röell · 1897-1901 : Nicolaas Pierson · 1901-1905 : Abraham Kuyper · 1905-1908 : Theo de Meester · 1908-1913 : Theo Heemskerk · 1913-1918 : Pieter Cort van der Linden · 1918-1925 : Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck · 1925-1926 : Hendrikus Colijn · 1926-1929 : Dirk Jan de Geer · 1929-1933 : Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck · 1933-1939 : Hendrikus Colijn · 1939-1940 : Dirk Jan de Geer · 1940-1945 : Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy\nPremiers ministres\n(depuis 1945)\n1945-1946 : Wim Schermerhorn · 1946-1948 : Louis Beel · 1948-1958 : Willem Drees · 1958-1959 : Louis Beel · 1959-1963 : Jan Eduard de Quay · 1963-1965 : Victor Marijnen · 1965-1966 : Jo Cals · 1966-1967 : Jelle Zijlstra · 1967-1971 : Piet de Jong · 1971-1973 : Barend Biesheuvel · 1973-1977 : Joop den Uyl · 1977-1982 : Dries van Agt · 1982-1994 : Ruud Lubbers · 1994-2002 : Wim Kok · 2002-2010 : Jan Peter Balkenende · Depuis 2010 : Mark Rutte\nv · m\nMinistres néerlandais de l'Économie\nTak van Poortvliet (en) · Klerck (en) · Van den Bergh (en) · Tromp (en) · Bastert (en) · Havelaar (en) · Lely · Van der Sleijden (en) · De Marez Oyens (en) · Kraus (en) · Veegens (en) · Talma · Treub · Posthuma (en) · Van IJsselsteyn (en) · Ruijs de Beerenbrouck · Aalberse · Koolen (en) · Slotemaker de Bruïne (en) · Verschuur (en) · Colijn · Steenberghe (en) · Gelissen · Steenberghe (en) · Colijn · Steenberghe (en) · Van den Tempel (en) · Kerstens (en) · Van den Broek (en) · Gispen (en) · Vos (en) · Huysmans (en) · Mansholt (intérim) · Van den Brink (en) · Zijlstra · De Pous (en) · Andriessen · Den Uyl · Bakker (en) · De Block (en) · Witteveen (intérim) · Nelissen · Langman · Lubbers · Van Aardenne (en) · Terlouw · Van Aardenne (en) · De Korte · Andriessen · Wijers · Jorritsma · Heinsbroek · Hoogervorst · Brinkhorst · Zalm (intérim) · Wijn (en) · Van der Hoeven · Verhagen · Kamp · Wiebes · Van Nieuwenhuizen (intérim) · Van 't Wout (en)\nPortail des Pays-Bas\nPortail de la politique\nPortail de la finance\nCe document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jelle_Zijlstra&oldid=174180989 ».\nCatégories :\nPremier ministre néerlandais\nMinistre néerlandais de l'Économie\nMinistre néerlandais des Finances\nMembre de la Première Chambre des États généraux\nMembre de la Seconde Chambre des États généraux\nPersonnalité du Parti antirévolutionnaire\nÉconomiste néerlandais\nBanquier néerlandais\nDirigeant de banque centrale\nÉtudiant de l'université Érasme de Rotterdam\nProfesseur à l'université libre d'Amsterdam\nNaissance en août 1918\nNaissance dans la province de Frise\nDécès en décembre 2001\nDécès à Wassenaar\nDécès à 83 ans\nCatégories cachées :\nArticle utilisant une Infobox\nArticle de Wikipédia avec notice d'autorité\nPage utilisant le modèle Bases littérature inactif\nPage utilisant le modèle Bases art inactif\nPage utilisant le modèle Bases vie publique inactif\nPage pointant vers des bases externes\nPage pointant vers des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes\nPage utilisant P7941\nPage utilisant P651\nPage utilisant P1284\nArticle contenant un appel à traduction en anglais\nPortail:Pays-Bas/Articles liés\nPortail:Europe/Articles liés\nPortail:Politique/Articles liés\nPortail:Finance/Articles liés\nPortail:Économie/Articles liés\nWikipédia:Article biographique\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Sciences\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Entreprises\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Politique\nPortail:Biographie/Articles liés/Culture et arts\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 27 août 2020 à 16:21.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis.","warc_headers":{"warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:bd8d1675-7137-4018-b6e2-d3831387f580>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:be43cc6b-b78e-4393-a3fa-2d530f35ef8a>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T10:05:19Z","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"9232","warc-identified-content-language":"fra","warc-target-uri":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelle_Zijlstra","warc-block-digest":"sha1:4RRLVW526LGG46VORUUT5N5W5DQLVDAI"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"fr","prob":0.6268121},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"fr","prob":0.99809074},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.88829744},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9994156},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99738675},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9964935},{"label":"fr","prob":0.80959886},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99900246},{"label":"fr","prob":0.985608},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9986257},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98554975},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9994533},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9994607},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97450525},null,null,{"label":"nl","prob":0.8777051},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9828107},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9739882},null,{"label":"ja","prob":0.98778915},{"label":"fr","prob":0.983789},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8926591},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9631382},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9512428},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97670066},{"label":"fr","prob":0.90905774},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9564955},{"label":"fr","prob":0.94457495},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9886526},{"label":"nl","prob":0.9596783},{"label":"nl","prob":0.95892525},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.8412902},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8272399},{"label":"fr","prob":0.942687},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9984857},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9904912},null,null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99859035},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.942687},{"label":"fr","prob":0.96872187},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9941847},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9764061},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.83056045},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000358},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9737001},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9822037},{"label":"fr","prob":0.968318},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9902188},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97747993},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9894712},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9883352},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9844859},{"label":"fr","prob":0.86201465},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9508078},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9962718},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99998844},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9819516},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000354},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99984735},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000385},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000174},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97834235},{"label":"fr","prob":0.998377},{"label":"fr","prob":0.972708},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97073025},{"label":"fr","prob":0.96022856},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8567434},{"label":"fr","prob":0.960761},null,null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.97835284},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9793985},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9440798},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9837235},{"label":"fr","prob":0.95408225},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9823733},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.8876886},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9117864},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9452161},{"label":"fr","prob":0.91913676},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99891186},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99089426},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98900306}]}}
{"content":"Les comics underground ou comix constituent un genre de bande dessinée américaine apparu aux États-Unis à la fin des années 1950, mais ne se développant vraiment qu'à partir du milieu des années 1960. Ces bandes dessinées s'opposent à celles publiées alors par les éditeurs grand public comme Marvel Comics, DC Comics ou Dell Comics par plusieurs particularités. Elles traitent souvent de sujets interdits par le Comics Code, l'organe d'auto-censure des éditeurs, tels la consommation de drogue, ou la sexualité, représentée clairement jusqu'à atteindre parfois la pornographie. Elles abordent aussi la politique en critiquant de très vive manière le gouvernement et tous les pouvoirs : police, justice, et religion notamment. Ces œuvres sont personnelles au sens où elles reflètent les opinions de leurs auteurs, mais aussi parce qu'elles appartiennent totalement à ceux-ci. Alors que dans le système classique de l'édition de comics les scénaristes et les dessinateurs sont privés de leurs droits sur leurs créations, qui reviennent aux éditeurs, ici les auteurs conservent leurs droits. Comme elles ne peuvent être distribuées dans le circuit des marchands de presse et des épiceries qui vérifient la présence du sceau du Comics Code, ces bandes dessinées doivent trouver un autre système de diffusion. Publiées d'abord dans des revues étudiantes diffusées sur les campus, elles se retrouvent aussi en vente dans des magasins spécialisés dans les produits de la contre-culture comme les head-shops, qui vendent des produits liés à la consommation de drogue, ou les disquaires.\nTous ces éléments font que ces comics pour adultes ont un lectorat très limité, au regard des ventes habituelles des comics des grands éditeurs. Cependant, peu à peu le lectorat se développe et les comix sont de plus en plus nombreux et se vendent de mieux en mieux. Le début des années 1970 est un âge d'or pour ce genre, mais cela dure peu et très rapidement le mouvement s'éteint. Ces comics sont jugés néfastes et, après un arrêté de la Cour suprême, les revendeurs peuvent être poursuivis. La diffusion diminue d'autant que le mouvement de la contre-culture s'épuise. Le succès de plusieurs œuvres a aussi attiré des artistes de moindre valeur et ce trop-plein finalement nuit aux éditeurs dont les revenus diminuent. Les auteurs les plus importants comme Robert Crumb, Art Spiegelman, Gilbert Shelton ou Trina Robbins parviennent cependant à poursuivre leur carrière d'autant qu'un nouveau système de diffusion des comics s'installe grâce au direct market. L'underground en tant que tel disparaît mais est remplacé par les comics indépendants ou alternatifs.\nAlors que l'underground était à ses débuts cantonné à un maigre lectorat, son importance est ensuite davantage reconnue. Certains auteurs, notamment Art Spiegelman et son roman graphique Maus, sont récompensés et leurs œuvres sont vues comme des éléments essentiels de la bande dessinée mondiale.\nSommaire\n1 Définition\n2 Histoire\n2.1 Les précurseurs\n2.2 Les débuts\n2.3 L'âge d'or\n2.4 Déclin et métamorphose\n3 Styles et discours\n3.1 Textes et dessins\n3.1.1 Textes\n3.1.2 Dessins\n3.2 Critique de la société\n3.3 Religion\n3.4 Représentations des drogues\n3.5 Représentation de la violence\n3.6 Représentation de la sexualité\n3.7 Représentation des femmes\n4 Place des autrices\n5 Aspects économiques\n5.1 Formats\n5.2 Édition et diffusion\n5.3 Droits d'auteur\n6 Adaptations dans d'autres médias\n7 Postérité\n7.1 De l'underground à l'alternatif\n7.2 Reconnaissances et influences\n7.2.1 Reconnaissances\n7.3 Influences à l'étranger\n8 Notes et références\n8.1 Notes\n8.2 Références\n9 Bibliographie\n10 Voir aussi\n10.1 Articles connexes\n10.2 Liens externes\nDéfinition[modifier | modifier le code]\nAu sens strict, les comics underground sont des bandes dessinée américaines auto-produites sous forme de fanzines ou édités dans le cadre de la small press au cours des années 1960 et de la première partie des années 1970. Associés à la Beat Generation et au mouvement hippie, ils sont parfois surnommés « comix », le « x » évoquant leur public adulte. Ils se distinguent des comics grand public par les thèmes abordés (sexualité, drogue et tout ce qui appartient à la contre-culture et qui est interdit ou mal vu par les bien-pensants). À cette liberté de thème répond celle du style de dessin qui refuse les canons de la bande dessinée classique[1]. Paul Lopes dans Demanding Respect : The Evolution of the American Comic Book définit ainsi les comics underground par cinq éléments : remise en cause les systèmes sociaux, politiques et culturels dominants ; rejet des modèles artistiques qui se trouvent habituellement dans les comics ; affranchissement du modèle économique classique ; prétention à une valeur artistique ; expression d'un auteur[2].\nCependant Mark Estren remarque qu'il est malaisé de donner une définition qui permette de regrouper un ensemble aussi hétéroclite de bandes dessinées[3]. Ce n'est ni le style, ni le discours qui peuvent faire le lien entre des œuvres disparates. Toutefois, ces comics sont publiés dans des journaux underground qui ne sont pas diffusés chez les marchands de journaux et leur diffusion est très faible, au mieux quelques dizaines de milliers d'exemplaires, au regard des ventes des comics grand public, plusieurs centaines de milliers dans les années 1960. L'absence du sceau du Comics Code couplée à l'avertissement sur la couverture, indiquant que le comics est destiné aux adultes est aussi un élément distinctif des comics underground[4]. En effet, si certains éditeurs de comics pour enfants comme Dell Comics refusent également la marque du code au motif que les parents savent que leurs séries ne peuvent choquer de quelque manière les plus jeunes, ils ne font logiquement pas figurer un tel avertissement[5]. Une autre particularité des comics underground est une mise en avant des auteurs alors que dans l'industrie du comics classique, les scénaristes et les dessinateurs sont interchangeables et n'ont pas de droits sur leurs créations[4].\nHistoire[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes précurseurs[modifier | modifier le code]\nDessin issu d'une Bible de Tijuana parodiant le comic strip Chris Crusty.\nLa bande dessinée underground n'est pas apparue aux États-Unis ex nihilo et les artistes considérés comme faisant partie de ce mouvement ont souvent reconnu leurs dettes envers des artistes et des comics antérieurs. Parmi ceux-ci sont souvent cités des comic strips comme Krazy Kat de George Herriman et Pogo[6] de Walt Kelly, les Bibles de Tijuana[1] (bien que celles-ci dans les années 1950 étaient très rares[7]), les EC Comics[8],[7] et les magazines dirigés par Harvey Kurtzman[8],[7] : Trump, publié par Hugh Hefner, le fondateur du magazine Playboy, Humbug, auto-publié avec la collaboration d'Arnold Roth en 1957 et surtout Help!, publié par Warren Publishing et qui dure cinq ans[7],[9]. Une autre source d'inspiration potentielle se trouve dans des magazines consacrés au bondage et au fétichisme comme Bizarre de John Willie, auteur de la bande dessinée Sweet Gwendoline[7]. Mark Estren trouve bien d'autres origines à la bande dessinée underground. The Yellow Kid[10], les dessins animés de la Warner Bros. avec Bugs Bunny et tous ses amis[11] et Jules Feiffer. Pour certains auteurs, des influences plus particulières ont pu aussi jouer comme Pim Pam Poum, Barnaby, Little Lulu[12], Little Nemo in Slumberland[13], Le Spirit de Will Eisner[14], les bandes dessinées de Carl Barks et celles de Al Capp[13].\nLes débuts[modifier | modifier le code]\nGilbert Shelton en 2013. La couverture de la bande dessinée montre sa création Wonder Wart-Hog.\nLes comics underground ne sont cependant pas seulement les héritiers de ces bandes dessinées. Ils sont aussi l'expression d'une jeunesse qui se révolte contre l'American way of life. Au cœur de ces comix s'exprime une critique sociale et politique. Ceci est lié aux mouvements contestataires des années 1960 et 1970, à la libération sexuelle et aux mouvements pacifistes et hippies. Le début de ce mouvement peut être daté de la fin des années 1950, début des années 1960[15]. Toutefois, le courant underground s'appuie sur des éléments existants. Ce sont d'abord dans des journaux universitaires ou des magazines étudiants que les futurs auteurs font leurs premières armes. Skip Williamson et Jay Lynch dessinent pour les magazines Aardvark de Chicago et Charlatan de Gainesville. Dans ce dernier se trouvent aussi Jaxon, Joel Beck, Foolbert Sturgeon et Gilbert Shelton. Ces journaux s'échangent par correspondance et entre ces jeunes artistes se créent des liens[2].\nLa série qui est souvent donnée comme point de départ de l'histoire des comics underground est Wonder Wart-Hog de Gilbert Shelton. Cette parodie de Superman paraît dans le magazine humoristique de l'université du Texas à Austin Texas Ranger publié par Shelton et Frank Stack de 1958 à 1962[15]. Le Texas Ranger est alors édité à 12 000 exemplaires et connaît un succès important[16]. Parallèlement en 1961, Don Dohler et Mark Tarka réalisent un fanzine intitulé Wild dont le nombre d'exemplaires tourne autour de cinquante. Ce fanzine ne publie que huit numéros, mais des artistes tels que Jay Lynch, Skip Williamson et Art Spiegelman y figurent[17]. Cependant la diffusion du Ranger est bien plus importante que celle du fanzine de Dohler et Tarka et la série de Shelton est un succès[18]. D'autres journaux étudiants accueillent aussi des bandes dessinées anticonformistes comme le Pelican à l'université de Californie à Berkeley[15]. À ce dernier participe le dessinateur Joel Beck qui auto-édite le comics Lenny of Laredo à la même période que Shelton et Stack publient Wonder Wart-Hog[19].\nPlusieurs de ces auteurs cherchent à placer des dessins dans des magazines diffusés à plus grande échelle. Ainsi Robert Crumb, Skip Williamson, Gilbert Shelton et Jay Lynch sont publiés dans Help!, une revue publiée par Warren Publishing et dirigée par Harvey Kurtzman. Celui-ci, dont le travail au sein d'EC Comics et surtout de Mad a influencé de nombreux artistes, est aussi attentif à cette nouvelle génération et offre des cartes blanches à de jeunes talents dans une section amateur[7],[9]. D'autres revues s'ouvrent aussi à ces auteurs : des dessins de Jay Lynch paraissent dans Cracked et Sick et ceux de Bill Griffith dans Surfer, périodique de surf[2]. D'autres encore sont publiés dans des magazines de motos[20]. Enfin, la société Topps engage aussi de nombreux dessinateurs pour qu'ils réalisent des cartes à collectionner[20].\nEn 1964, Gilbert Shelton, Jack Jackson et Tony Bell font paraître une revue underground intitulée The Austin Iconoclastic Newsletter, plus connue sous le nom de THE, dans laquelle Frank Stack publie The Adventures of J.[n 1],[16]. Les épisodes sont ensuite rassemblés par Shelton qui en fait un recueil diffusé sous forme de photocopies. Par ailleurs cette même année Jack Jackson publie sous le pseudonyme de Jaxon ce qui est considéré comme le premier comics underground, God Nose imprimé à 1 000 exemplaires[18]. À cette époque les auteurs de comix se rassemblent principalement à Austin au Texas ou en Californie[19].\nL'âge d'or[modifier | modifier le code]\nRobert Crumb en 2010.\nLes comix sont donc le moyen pour de nombreux auteurs de diffuser leurs bandes dessinées. Parmi ceux-ci, on trouve Robert Crumb qui en 1968 publie Zap Comix[21]. Le premier numéro est imprimé à 5 000 exemplaires par l'éditeur de comics underground Don Donahue qui le fait distribuer dans des head shops et chez des disquaires[18]. À partir du deuxième numéro Zap devient un collectif et publie les bandes dessinées de Spain Rodriguez, Victor Moscoso, Rick Griffin et S. Clay Wilson[18]. Cela encourage la même année Jay Lynch et Skip Williamson à publier un comix nommé Bijou Funnies qui prend la place du magazine Chicago Mirror qu'ils éditaient[22] et dans lequel Art Spiegelman présente ses récits[18]. Au même moment Gilbert Shelton publie Feds 'n' Heads Comics qui reprend des bandes qu'il avait produits pour l'Austin Rag[23],[24]. En 1968 commence à paraître Yellow Dog, publié par Don Schenker et qui est le comic book underground qui a duré le plus longtemps[25].\nParmi les journaux The East Village Other tient une place particulière. Tout d'abord en 1968 Spain Rodriguez y crée Trashman et surtout, à partir de 1969, y est inséré un livret au format tabloid intitulé Gothic Blimp Works qui accueille tous les noms importants de la bande dessinée underground parmi lesquels Vaughn Bodé et Willy Murphy[26].\nLes comics underground sont souvent des œuvres auto-éditées, mais des maisons d'édition spécialisées commencent à apparaître. Ainsi en 1968, après avoir quitté le Texas pour San Francisco, épicentre de la contre-culture[24], Shelton, Fred Todd, Dave Moriaty et Jaxon fondent Rip Off Press qui publie Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers[27]. La première apparition de ces personnages, qui sont parmi les plus connus de la création underground américaine, a lieu dans le journal The Austin Rag[27] et date de cette même année. En 1970, Ron Turner découvre Zap Comix et décide de créer son propre comics intitulé Slow Death Funnies dont les recettes doivent financer une association écologiste. Cette dernière n'est pas intéressée et les ventes servent finalement à fonder une maison d'édition nommée Last Gasp, qui publie alors le premier comics entièrement créé par des femmes, It ain't me, Babe, sous la direction éditoriale de Trina Robbins et Barbara Mendes[18]. C'est aussi chez Last Gasp que Justin Green dessine le comix Binky Brown meets the Virgin Mary souvent considéré comme la première autobiographie dessinée[18] bien qu'on trouve des précurseurs à des périodes plus anciennes comme l'autrice Fay King qui dans les années 1910 propose un strip dans lequel elle raconte certains éléments de sa vie[28]. Enfin Last Gasp est aussi l'éditeur du comix Air Pirates Funnies qui parodie les personnages de Walt Disney, surtout Mickey Mouse. Deux numéros seulement sont publiés en juillet et août 1971 mais le procès qui oppose les auteurs du comics, à commencer par Dan O'Neill, dure jusqu'en 1980[29].\nL'essor de cette bande dessinée underground voit l'arrivée de nouveaux artistes tels que Kim Deitch, Rick Griffin, Robert Williams et S. Clay Wilson et l'apparition de nouveaux éditeurs. En 1970, Denis Kitchen, déçu du fonctionnement de Print Mint, qui est à l'époque le principal éditeur de comix, fonde sa société nommée Krupp Comic Works[18]. Le nombre de comix publié augmente (300 en 1973)[27] et les ventes se chiffrent en dizaines de milliers d'exemplaires[27]. Ainsi en 1972 plus d'un million d'exemplaires des divers numéros de Zap Comics ont été vendus et en 1973 Krupp Comic Works édite 36 comics ; il fait imprimer chaque mois entre 90 et 100 000 exemplaires et en un an en vend plus d'un million[30]. Cette explosion des ventes est cependant à relativiser car, dans le même temps, les éditeurs de comics traditionnels vendent 200 millions de comics[30].\nDéclin et métamorphose[modifier | modifier le code]\nArt Spiegelman, figure emblématique de l'underground et de la bande dessinée alternative.\nAprès avoir atteint ces sommets, la chute est brutale. Le monde de la contre-culture américaine s'essouffle et les États s'attaquent aux comix en mettant en cause surtout la représentation de la sexualité. Plusieurs distributeurs et vendeurs sont poursuivis pour obscénité. Le plus souvent les poursuites ne mènent à rien. Cependant, un cas en particulier change la donne. En août 1969, Richard Crumb publie le quatrième numéro de Zap Comics. Un policier en civil en achète plusieurs exemplaires dans différents magasins. Les vendeurs sont ensuite arrêtés pour avoir distribué du matériel pornographique en toute connaissance de cause. Deux sont condamnés en première instance puis en appel. Lorsque le cas est porté en 1973 devant la Cour suprême américaine, celle-ci rejette la demande des avocats des vendeurs ce qui de fait permet aux procureurs de poursuivre les personnes qui distribuent des comics underground. Dans sa décision, la Cour suprême affirme que chaque communauté est libre de fixer ce qui est obscène et ce qui ne l'est pas, donc que chaque juridiction peut interdire des ouvrages qui ne répondent pas à ses standards[31]. La conséquence la plus importante pour les auteurs underground est la décision de plusieurs revendeurs de ne plus présenter leurs comics qui représentent une part très faible de leurs revenus mais risquent de les conduire au tribunal[32]. Les head shops sont alors de plus en plus soumis à la pression policière et préfèrent faire profil bas[33].\nÀ cela s'ajoutent deux autres causes qui précipitent la fin des comics underground. Tout d'abord, le succès du genre amène de nombreux auteurs et éditeurs à vouloir entrer dans ce système. Le bon grain est noyé sous l'ivraie et la compétition nuit à tous. De plus, en 1973, le prix du papier s'envole et l'équilibre financier fragile des éditeurs est mis à mal. De nombreux journaux underground mettent alors la clef sous la porte[33]. L'éditeur Ron Turner explique qu'en 1974-1975, les ventes de comics underground chutent de 80%[34]. La réduction des œuvres underground est importante mais celles-ci ne disparaissent pas totalement car à la même période émerge un nouveau modèle de vente de comics, le direct market. Alors qu'auparavant les comics étaient vendus chez les marchands de journaux ou les épiceries, des magasins ne vendant que des comics apparaissent. Ceux-ci ne se soucient pas de l'aval du comics code et les éditeurs de comics underground trouvent là un nouveau débouché[35]. Cependant, les ventes sont bien loin de celles du tout début des années 1970, aussi le nombre de nouveaux comics est limité et les éditeurs s'appuient sur des réimpressions de comix à succès[33].\nDe plus les éditeurs se professionnalisent et les sociétés s'inscrivent dans le système marchand classique. Des liens entre les éditeurs grand public et le monde du comics underground se créent comme le montre la tentative de Marvel Comics de publier un magazine intitulé Comix Book avec Denis Kitchen et des auteurs underground. L'essai dure peu, puisque Marvel ne publie que trois numéros, mais il montre un rapprochement entre les deux types de création qu'à l'origine tout opposait[27].\nL'évolution de la société et les transformations du monde de l'underground entraînent une chute importante des ventes[27]. Cependant, de nouveaux auteurs désireux de produire un travail personnel apparaissent, bien que les thèmes abordés diffèrent de ceux des comics underground. Ainsi en 1976 Harvey Pekar propose le comics autobiographique American Splendor dessiné entre autres par Robert Crumb et qui est l'une des premières œuvres à faire le lien entre l'underground et l'alternatif. En effet, progressivement la scène underground se transforme en scène alternative. La grande différence entre ces deux genres de bande dessinée tient au fait que les comix ne visaient qu'une population limitée adepte de la contre-culture alors que la bande dessinée alternative cherche à atteindre le plus grand nombre avec des sujets plus adultes[27].\n1976 est aussi l'année du lancement de la revue Arcade éditée par Art Spiegelman. Bien qu'elle soit pensée pour être diffusée avec les magazines grand public, elle ne sort pas du réseau de l'underground et ne peut se maintenir plus de sept numéros. Cet échec est parfois considéré comme la dernière tentative de comics underground. La revue cependant est aussi vue comme la précurseure de RAW, luxueuse revue éditée à partir de 1980 par Spiegelman et son épouse Françoise Mouly, où celui-ci publie à partir du deuxième numéro son récit sur la Shoah Maus. RAW accueille aussi bien des auteurs underground connus que de nouveaux artistes comme Charles Burns. Robert Crumb publie aussi sa revue nommée Weirdo à partir de 1981 prise en main ensuite par Peter Bagge[36].\nStyles et discours[modifier | modifier le code]\nTextes et dessins[modifier | modifier le code]\nSelon Mark James Estren, une particularité des comics underground est le renversement du lien entre le texte et l'image. Alors que les comic strips sont portés par le récit et que le dessin sert plus à les enluminer, les comix sont des œuvres dans lesquelles le dessin est primordial, le discours peut être secondaire et lorsque ce n'est pas le cas, les deux sont inextricablement liés, si bien qu'aucun ne pourrait être supprimé sans que le sens ne disparaisse. L'analyse doit donc aborder ces deux aspects simultanément[37].\nTextes[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes comix différent de la production classique par bien des aspects, qu'ils soient esthétiques, économiques, ou politiques. Un des plus importants, car il est la cause de nombreuses autres différences, est l'importance accordée à l'auteur. Alors que dans les principales maisons d'édition, les auteurs dépendent de choix éditoriaux sur lesquels ils ont peu de prise, dans la presse underground, ils sont seuls devant leur planche, écrivent et dessinent ce qu'ils veulent. Si des auteurs peuvent se retrouver pour éditer en commun un comics, les discussions porteront peut-être sur le thème général mais jamais sur le travail de chacun[38].\nComme il est souvent question de moquer la morale dominante, les comix sont souvent humoristiques. Alors que, selon Estren, les comic strips avaient le plus souvent perdu de leur force comique au cours des décennies, les récits publiés dans la presse underground font rire en se moquant de tout ce qui est ridicule chez l'être humain. L'irrévérence est maîtresse[39].\nDessins[modifier | modifier le code]\nLe discours contre la bien-pensance s'allie à un dessin hors-norme et libre. Ainsi, lorsque les auteurs parlent de sexualité, ils dessinent clairement les organes sexuels[37]. Mais cette liberté ne s'arrête pas là, elle s'affiche aussi dans la volonté d'avoir un style personnel qui, de fait, peut être très amateur ou très travaillé[37]. De plus, la consommation régulière de drogues (marijuana et LSD le plus souvent) se traduit parfois dans le style de dessin[40]. Cet usage, habituel à cette époque chez les lecteurs de comics underground, fait que le sujet est souvent traité, sans que cela paraisse extraordinaire alors qu'en mai-juillet 1971, les trois épisodes de The Amazing Spider-Man dans lesquels ce thème est abordé apparaissent hors-normes et acquièrent une importance historique pour cela[41]. En regard, les personnages des comics underground prennent toutes sortes de drogues et éprouvent les mêmes dérèglements des sens que ceux que les lecteurs peuvent connaître[42].\nCritique de la société[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes comics underground ne se contentent pas d'être un objet artistique, ils sont aussi un moyen pour les artistes d'exprimer leurs opinions qui rejoignent celles de la contre-culture américaine de l'époque. On y trouve une critique de la société de consommation, des messages contre la guerre du Viêt Nam, des soutiens aux luttes pour les droits civiques mais aussi souvent une apologie de l'amour libre, des drogues et de tout ce qui appartient au mouvement hippie. Tout ce qui fonde la société américaine, comme la religion ou ce qui en est une représentation idéale, est critiqué. Ainsi en 1969, Frank Stack publie The New Adventures of Jesus, comics humoristique dont Jésus est le héros, et en 1971, l'anthologie Air Pirates Funnies se moque des personnages Disney[8]. L'ordre policier est aussi une cible des comics underground et, selon Spain Rodriguez, ceux-ci ont une approche plus réaliste de ce qu'est la police, y compris avec ses déviances (torture, mensonge, violence gratuite, etc.), que les médias grand public[43]. La morale n'est pas plus respectée dans le traitement des personnages qui malgré leurs actions répréhensibles, comme la prise de drogue, ne sont pas nécessairement punis[37].\nIl est cependant rare que les auteurs se laissent aller à exprimer une opinion sur ce qui devrait être fait. Ils cherchent plutôt à dénoncer l'absurdité ou les erreurs de la société contemporaine qu'à la réformer[44]. Une exception majeure est Ron Cobb qui défend l'écologie dans ses œuvres. Il est d'ailleurs l'auteur du symbole utilisé sur le drapeau de l'écologie[45]. Une des raisons avancées par certains auteurs pour expliquer cette absence de message partisan est la difficulté d'être drôle tout en développant des idées politiques[46]. De plus comme la critique porte sur le fonctionnement du système politique et plus largement de la société, il ne peut être question de seulement changer les personnes. Seule la destruction totale des valeurs peut transformer le monde. Les auteurs underground partagent souvent cette vision « nihiliste, dada, anarchique » et préfèrent fustiger les pouvoirs en place au lieu de proposer un programme politique[46]. La force de l'art est vue comme un moteur du changement de la société. La liberté de ton et de style touchent les lecteurs et cela entraîne une métamorphose de celle-ci[47].\nReligion[modifier | modifier le code]\nComme la critique de la société touche toutes ses composantes, la religion ne pouvait échapper au regard des auteurs underground. Ce sont les représentants ou les effets de la religion chrétienne qui sont les cibles de ceux-ci. En 1964, Frank Stack dessine The Adventures of Jesus (suivi en 1971 de The New adventures of Jesus) et Jaxon God Nose. Tous deux sont souvent considérés comme les premiers comics underground (The Adventures of Jesus précède God Nose de quelques mois mais n'est diffusé qu'à 50 exemplaires alors que 1 000 exemplaires du second sont tout de suite édités) et tous deux ont pour sujet Dieu et Jésus. Ils critiquent l'hypocrisie des instances religieuses et des pratiques éloignées du réel message chrétien[48],[49]. Ce thème revient régulièrement, que ce soit Crumb avec Despair en 1970, les auteurs de l'anthologie Tales of a leather Nun en 1973 ou, en 1972, Justin Green avec Binky Brown rencontre la Vierge Marie, considéré le plus souvent comme le premier comics autobiographique important[50]. Soumis aux préceptes rigoureux contre la sexualité émis par les membres de l'Église catholique, le protagoniste de cette bande dessinée souffre de névrose et développe des troubles obsessionnels compulsifs[51]. Ce n'est donc pas la religion qui est combattue mais l’assujettissement des croyants par les membres du clergé et leur morale puritaine[50].\nReprésentations des drogues[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes comics underground sont souvent associés à l'usage de drogues. Que ce soit les auteurs, les personnages ou les lecteurs. Les Fabuleux Freak Brothers de Gilbert Shelton sont des exemples de ces personnages qui consomment couramment des drogues et ce sans qu'ils soient condamnés de quelque façon par leur auteur[52]. Plusieurs autres comix ont pour sujet principal la consommation de drogues comme Stones Picture Parade en 1968 ou Tooney Loons and Marijuana Melodies en 1971. Cependant, le traitement de ce sujet n'est pas monolithique et d'autres comics l'abordent sous un angle bien plus sombre. C'est le cas en 1972 de l'anthologie Tuff Shit publiée par Print Mint et dont les bénéfices sont reversés à un programme d'aide aux drogués, et du mini comics The Great Marijuana Debate! publié par Kitchen Sink en 1972 et réimprimé dans Dope Comix en 1978[53]. Ce comics connaît plusieurs numéros et a pour but de prévenir ses lecteurs des dangers de la consommation de drogues[54].\nReprésentation de la violence[modifier | modifier le code]\nDans les années 1950, les comics policiers et ceux d'horreur remplacent les comics de super-héros. D'autres genres sont aussi présents (western, romance, science-fiction, etc.) mais ce sont ces deux-là qui attirent le plus les adolescents. Ils attirent aussi les contempteurs de la bande dessinée qui les accusent de conduire les jeunes à la violence et à la délinquance. Ceci conduit à la création du Comics Code Authority qui instaure de fait une censure et la disparition des comics policier et d'horreur. La représentation de la violence devient alors beaucoup moins explicite ; le sang, les crimes sont rejetés et les combats, même dans les comics de guerre, ne sont plus réalistes[55]. Les comics underground, parce qu'ils refusent de se soumettre au code et n'ont pas besoin de son approbation pour être distribués, peuvent se complaire, si l'auteur le désire, dans une violence excessive[56]. C'est le cas par exemple de S. Clay Wilson qui constamment dépeint des actes de la plus grande violence[57]. Wilson est un cas particulier mais d'autres auteurs n'hésitent pas à montrer des actions violentes si l'histoire le demande. Il ne s'agit pas alors de la nier ou au contraire de la valoriser ou de s'y complaire mais de ne pas se censurer et de rester le plus juste possible. Une des idées défendue par les auteurs est que la violence de la bande dessinée est le reflet de celle que la société inflige à ses membres[57]. Alors que les comics des années 1940 limitaient la violence à des histoires policières ou d'horreur, celle des comics underground peut être présente dans n'importe quelle circonstance, comme elle l'est dans la réalité[58].\nReprésentation de la sexualité[modifier | modifier le code]\nUn des éléments les plus frappants des bandes dessinées underground est la représentation de la sexualité. Exceptés les «eight pagers», la nudité et les relations sexuelles étaient absentes des comics. Ne voulant rien s'interdire, nombreux sont les auteurs qui intègrent dans leurs récits de tels objets, allant parfois jusqu'à la pornographie. Robert Crumb ou S. Clay Wilson dessinent ainsi plusieurs histoires qui ont pour seule fin de présenter des actes sexuels. Les tabous n'existent plus et même ce qui est considéré comme déviant dans la société américaine des années 1950-1960 a droit de cité, que ce soit l'homosexualité, le sado-masochisme ou encore l'inceste. En faisant cela, les auteurs font cependant plus que de la seule pornographie. En mettant en lumière une part importante de l'humanité qui est cachée, ils font aussi œuvre politique[59]. Il est cependant aussi à noter que la sexualité est très souvent liée à la violence, parfois la plus effrénée[60].\nReprésentation des femmes[modifier | modifier le code]\nQuoique les auteurs de comix se flattent de défier la société en place, ils en reprennent certains aspects et particulièrement l'image des femmes. Les auteurs sont surtout des hommes et les femmes dans leurs bandes dessinées sont soit des objets sexuels, soit des castratrices[61]. Et même un auteur qui dans ses séries évite cela, comme Bill Griffith, n'est pas à l'abri de réflexions montrant qu'il reprend le discours masculin à propos des luttes pour la libération des femmes[62]. L'artiste le plus critiqué pour cela est sans conteste Robert Crumb qui, malgré ses discours de soutien au mouvement de libération des femmes[63], représente le plus souvent ses personnages féminins comme des êtres soumis aux désirs sexuels des hommes[64]. Comme il est le dessinateur underground le plus connu, les critiques des féministes et des femmes artistes, comme Trina Robbins[65], n'ont pas manqué[66].\nPlace des autrices[modifier | modifier le code]\nTrina Robbins en 1982.\nPlusieurs autrices ont participé à ce mouvement pour lutter contre le sexisme de la société américaine mais aussi celui des auteurs underground. En effet, les artistes masculins, à l'instar de Robert Crumb, dessinent des scènes pornographiques dans lesquelles les femmes sont traitées comme des objets soumis par la violence[53]. Plusieurs autrices féministes se rebellent contre ce machisme ambiant et introduisent dans leurs œuvres leurs idées politiques. Parmi ces autrices de comics underground certaines se détachent comme Trina Robbins qui participe au Yellow Dog[67] puis au journal féministe It Ain't Me, Babe. Elle codirige ensuite avec Barbara Mendes à l'été 1970 le premier comic book entièrement réalisé par des femmes, It Ain't Me, Babe, publié par Last Gasp[68].\nEn 1972, se forme le groupe Wimmen's Comix Collective qui comprend entre autres Trina Robbins, Michele Brand, Lee Marrs, Lora Fountain, Patricia Moodian, Sharon Rudahl et Aline Kominsky. Le collectif lance cette même année le comic book Wimmen's Comix publié jusqu'en 1991[69] et dans lequel sont présentées des histoires traitant du mariage, de l'avortement et d'autres sujets intéressant les femmes et jamais traités ainsi jusqu'alors[68]. Cependant Wimmen's Comix est devancé de quelques semaines par Tits & Clits publié par Lyn Chevli et Joyce Farmer en juillet 1972[70] qui aborde le sujet des règles. Celles-ci publient peu après Abortion Eve en 1973 dans lequel cinq femmes enceintes décrivent les problèmes liés à l'avortement[68]. Cette même année, deux personnes qui vendaient Tits and Clits sont poursuivies pour avoir vendu un magazine obscène. Cela vient après la décision de la Cour suprême laissant à chaque communauté l'autorité pour définir ce qui est obscène. Au bout de deux ans les poursuites sont abandonnées mais les deux autrices ne publient plus rien durant cette période[68].\nC'est aussi à ce moment qu'est publié le premier comic book lesbien, et plus largement homosexuel, Come Out Comix de Mary Wings[68]. D'autres comics lesbiens suivent comme Dynamite Damsels de Roberta Gregory en 1976 ou Dyke Shorts en 1978 de Mary Wings. Quant à Trina Robbins, elle participe à de nombreuses revues[71] et édite son propre comics nommé Trina's Women publié par Krupp Comic Works en 1976. Ces autrices ne cherchent pas la provocation pour elle-même mais elles font de chaque œuvre un manifeste politique pour défendre les droits des femmes contre le sexisme, la violence machiste, l'homophobie[72].\nAspects économiques[modifier | modifier le code]\nL'essor des comix suit celui de la presse underground. À partir de 1965, l'impression offset se démocratise avec une baisse des coûts. Dès lors de nombreux journaux de la contre-culture apparaissent : East Village Other à New York, L.A. Free Press à Los Angeles et Oracle à San Francisco. De plus, deux organismes de syndication, Underground Press Syndicate et Liberation News Service, sont fondés en 1967. Des séries sont alors diffusées dans des dizaines de journaux et touchent ainsi un grand nombre de lecteurs[20].\nLes comics underground sont en rupture totale avec le système de production et de distribution des comics grand public de l'époque et seules les Tijuana Bibles, vendus sous le manteau, avaient auparavant établi des circuits de distribution indépendants des classiques. Dans les deux cas, le contenu passible de poursuites judiciaires empêchait de suivre le modèle habituel. Les comix se trouvent le plus souvent dans des poster shop, magasins qui vendent des posters des vedettes musicales de l'époque, et dans des head shops qui sont spécialisés dans la vente de matériel en lien avec la consommation de drogues[73].\nPubliée au mieux à quelques milliers d'exemplaires, la bande dessinée underground ne provoque pas de changement dans le système économique imposé par les grands éditeurs et distributeurs. Même si à la fin des années 1960 et le début des années 1970 les éditeurs mainstream ne connaissent plus les chiffres de diffusion des années 1940, où il n'était pas rare de voir des titres dépasser le million d'exemplaires, ils dépassent largement les éditeurs underground[73].\nAlors que le prix des comics dans les années 1960 ne dépasse pas les 10 cents, les comics underground coûtent au moins 25 cents et peuvent monter jusqu'à 50. Pour ce prix élevé, le contenu est le plus souvent en noir et blanc alors que les comics grand public sont en couleur[37]. Comme dans le système classique, les revenus des ventes sont partagés entre le revendeur, le distributeur, l'éditeur et l'auteur. Ce dernier touche en moyenne 25 $ par page pour 20 000 exemplaires mais le tarif varie d'un éditeur à l'autre et selon la célébrité de l'artiste. Denis Kitchen paie 30 $ par page pour une première édition de 20 000 exemplaires et à chaque réédition de 20 000 paie de nouveau 30 $ la page. Les auteurs les plus populaires peuvent toucher jusqu'à 150 $ par planche[74].\nFormats[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes comics underground apparaissent sur plusieurs types de support. Dans un format tabloïd, donc plus grand que celui des comic books, on trouve Gothic Blimp Works, qui est le plus important de ces journaux mais aussi Yellow Dog, King Bee de S. Clay Wilson et The collected Trashman de Spain Rodriguez[75]. À côté de ces journaux, de nombreux artistes underground commencent par être publiés dans des fanzines. Jay Lynch, Skip Williamson et Art Spiegelman sont publiés dans Wild, Lynch et Williamson se retrouvent aussi dans Smudge et Williamson lance son propre fanzine intitulé Squire[17]. Le format le plus important reste cependant celui utilisé par les comic books classiques. Robert Crumb en lançant Zap Comix inspire de nombreux auteurs. Il se réapproprie le format et montre que celui-ci est adapté pour des récits plus adultes [76]. C'est d'ailleurs ce choix de format qui est en partie la cause de la décision de justice condamnant les revendeurs du comics. En effet, pour le procureur de district et pour la police, les comic books devaient rester destinés uniquement aux enfants : le contenu de Zap ne pouvant pas leur convenir, la publication devait être condamnée[77].\nÉdition et diffusion[modifier | modifier le code]\nRon Turner, responsable éditorial de Last Gasp.\nComparée aux chiffres des éditeurs classiques dont les comics sont distribués dans les magasins de journaux, l'édition et la diffusion des comix est confidentielle et dépend du soutien de propriétaires de magasins spécialisés dans la vente de produits de la contre-culture[78] ou des magasins de comics comme celui de Gary Arlington à San Francisco ouvert en 1968 et qui pouvait se targuer d'être l'un des premiers[8]. L'accès à ces œuvres ne se fait donc pas par l'intermédiaire des kiosques mais via un circuit de distribution parallèle relayé par la diffusion sur les campus[1]. Cela implique une impression en quantité limitée ce qui n'empêche pas ces comics d'avoir une influence importante[78].\nLa liberté de ton, qui se retrouve dans ces comics, va de pair avec une diffusion des œuvres hors du système classique des marchands de journaux. Les bandes dessinées peuvent être publiées dans des journaux underground[8] ou dans des fanzines[79]. Ces journaux apparaissent dans plusieurs grandes villes et, pour être diffusés sur tout le territoire, s'associent en 1966 pour former l'Underground Press Syndicate (UPS) fondé par Walter Bowart, éditeur de l'East Village Other. UPS accueille aussi des journaux européens et atteint une distribution de 5 millions d'exemplaires. Les membres d'UPS apprécient les bandes dessinées underground qui attirent les lecteurs et des séries se retrouvent ainsi diffusées à grande échelle comme Fritz the Cat de Crumb[80].\nSi les auteurs sont dans un premier temps diffusés dans des journaux, à partir du moment où le format comic book est privilégié, ils doivent passer par une société d'édition pour ne pas rester dans une diffusion extrêmement confidentielle. Une des premières sociétés d'édition et la plus importante est Print Mint. Cependant, pour atteindre l'équilibre, cet éditeur est amené à suivre les politiques éditoriales des groupes grand public. Cela entraîne le mécontentement de plusieurs artistes. Gilbert Shelton fonde Rip Off Press en partie pour échapper à Print Mint. Là encore, des auteurs, dont S. Clay Wilson se plaignent de la façon dont ils sont traités. Les autres éditeurs importants comme The San Francisco Comic Book Company[81] ou Last Gasp de Ron Turner n'échappent pas plus aux critiques[82]. Ces éditeurs proposent leurs propres catalogues et distribuent leurs comics dans un réseau composé de disquaires, de magasins vendant des produits liés à la drogue, et toute sorte de lieux de la contre-culture[30].\nDroits d'auteur[modifier | modifier le code]\nDans les années 1960, les créations publiées dans les comics grand public appartiennent de fait aux maisons d'édition et il faut attendre la fin des années 1970 pour que les droits d'auteur commencent à être respectés par les grands groupes. Les auteurs underground sont, au contraire, attachés à garder la totale propriété intellectuelle sur leurs œuvres. Cependant, le fait qu'ils ne fassent pas partie du système de distribution classique les expose à être spoliés de leurs droits. Ce peut être léger comme lors de la publication en couleur dans le magazine Esquire de plusieurs cases d'un comics de Gilbert Shelton alors que celui-ci avait choisi le noir et blanc[83]. Cependant, il n'est pas rare que les copies des dessins se fassent sans autorisation et n'apportent aucune rémunération aux auteurs. Ainsi le dessin Keep on trucking de Robert Crumb est utilisé pour des tee-shirts dont les ventes importantes ne rapportent rien à l'auteur[84].\nLes artistes rejettent le système judiciaire autant que les autres éléments de la société américaine et les copyrights peuvent être aussi une façon de se moquer du droit d'auteur[pas clair]. Cependant, les atteintes à la propriété intellectuelle poussent plusieurs auteurs à inscrire clairement l'interdiction de copie sans l'autorisation expresse du créateur. Ainsi, Crumb appose-t-il un copyright sur toutes ses séries et les auteurs édités par Krupp Comic Work laissent cette société gérer les droits d'auteur[84]. Cela conduit aussi certains à s'unir dans une sorte de syndicat chargé de les protéger, l'United Cartoon Workers of America, que rejoignent notamment Crumb, Justin Green, Art Spiegelman et Spain Rodriguez[84].\nAdaptations dans d'autres médias[modifier | modifier le code]\nJay Lynch en 2014.\nLes caractéristiques mêmes des comics undergrounds (thèmes et style de dessin s'adressant aux adultes) empêchent que les œuvres soient facilement adaptées dans d'autres médias. La seule exception est Fritz the Cat de Robert Crumb qui est adapté au cinéma par Ralph Bakshi dans un film homonyme. Fritz le chat, sorti en 1972, est le premier film d'animation classé X. Et quoique les critiques soient mitigées[85], il connaît un très grand succès ; ayant coûté 700 000 dollars, il en rapporte 90 millions[86]. Cependant, Robert Crumb est mécontent de l'adaptation et engage un procès pour que son nom soit retiré des crédits. Une suite, intitulée Les Neuf Vies de Fritz le chat est réalisée par Robert Taylor ; ni Robert Crumb, ni Ralph Bakshi n'y participent et ce film aboutit uniquement parce que Crumb, lié par le contrat original, ne pouvait l'empêcher[87].\nIl est à noter que des travaux d'artistes ont pu être adaptés mais sans que ces derniers soient crédités. Le style de Crumb est copié dans des publicités[88] et Jay Lynch, après avoir envoyé des strips intitulés Chicken Man à un producteur de dessins animés à la télévision, n'obtient aucune réponse mais découvre quelque temps plus tard un dessin animé produit par celui-ci et intitulé Super Chicken[89].\nPostérité[modifier | modifier le code]\nDe l'underground à l'alternatif[modifier | modifier le code]\nDans la seconde moitié des années 1970, les comics underground disparaissent. La contre-culture s'étiole, les conditions économiques (hausse du prix du papier, perte de points de vente, multiplication de publications sans réel intérêt) deviennent plus difficiles et la menace judiciaire est une épée de Damoclès constante. La volonté de créer des œuvres originales et différentes du tout-venant trouve cependant de nouvelles formes et de nouveaux modèles pour s'exprimer[90]. Tout d'abord, l'essor du direct market permet de trouver de nouveaux endroits pour vendre les comics. Ces magasins spécialisés dans la vente de comics ne se soucient pas de la présence du sceau du Comics Code et mettent à l'origine côte à côte d'anciens numéros de comics publiés par les éditeurs classiques et les comix[91]. Il s'agit alors de lieux où se retrouvent des fans de bande dessinée qui recherchent ce qui n'est pas disponible dans les marchands de presse.\nPeu à peu les éditeurs comme Marvel ou DC Comics se mettent à distribuer leurs comics dans ces magasins mais les underground y ont toujours une place. De plus les éditeurs de comics underground comme Rip Off Press, Last Gasp ou Kitchen Sink s'installent dans la durée. Les auteurs peuvent donc se faire éditer et leurs œuvres être distribuées. En outre, ceux qui préfèrent s'autoéditer le peuvent et trouvent des magasins acceptant leurs travaux[92]. Dès lors, les comics underground disparaissent totalement et sont remplacés par des comics indépendants ou alternatifs. La différence entre les deux genres n'est pas toujours évidente mais les spécialistes considèrent habituellement que les comics indépendants, comme Elfquest de Wendy et Richard Pini, ont des contenus proches de ceux trouvés dans les comics classiques sans être publiés par les grands groupes alors que les alternatifs, plus proche de l'esprit des underground, traitent de sujets originaux et personnels[93].\nReconnaissances et influences[modifier | modifier le code]\nReconnaissances[modifier | modifier le code]\nLa reconnaissance des auteurs underground les plus importants se manifeste par des rééditions de leurs œuvres mais aussi par des distinctions. Ainsi Robert Crumb (1991), Art Spiegelman (1999), Vaughn Bodé (2006), Jaxon (2011), Gilbert Shelton (2012), Spain Rodriguez (2013), Trina Robbins (2013), Denis Kitchen (2015) et Dori Seda (2017) sont inscrits au Temple de la renommée Will Eisner[94]. Robert Crumb reçoit le grand prix du festival d'Angoulême en 1999[95] tout comme Art Spiegelman en 2011[96]. Ce dernier avait déjà été en 1992 récompensé par un prix Pulitzer pour Maus qui est la seule bande dessinée à avoir reçu ce prix[96]. Enfin l'influence des auteurs de comics underground se retrouve chez des auteurs hors-normes comme Emil Ferris, l'autrice de Moi, ce que j'aime, c'est les monstres, prix du meilleur album à Angoulême en 2019, qui reconnait l'importance de Robert Crumb et Art Spiegelman sur son travail[97].\nInfluences à l'étranger[modifier | modifier le code]\nDans les années 1970, les comics underground arrivent dans d'autres pays. Au Royaume-Uni, le magazine OZ publie entre autres les œuvres de Crumb ou de S. Clay Wilson. En France, des comix sont traduits dans Actuel et très vite influencent des auteurs qui se retrouvent dans L'Écho des savanes à partir de 1972. D'autres magazines de bande dessinée suivent le mouvement comme Métal hurlant en 1975[73] et Ah ! Nana en 1976. Ce dernier, réalisé presque uniquement par des femmes, et auquel Trina Robbins a participé, traite comme ces équivalents américains de thèmes considérés comme féminins. Comme eux, il est menacé par la censure qui, en France, est l'une des causes de son arrêt[98]. L'influence de l'underground américain se retrouve aussi aux Pays-Bas avec Tante Leny Presenteert et en Espagne avec El Rrollo enmascarado et El Vibora en 1979[73].\nNotes et références[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotes[modifier | modifier le code]\n↑ J. fait référence à Jésus.\nRéférences[modifier | modifier le code]\n↑ a b et c Duncan 2010, p. 647.\n↑ a b et c Lopes 2009, p. 75.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 18.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 20.\n↑ (en) Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith, Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman , ABC-CLIO, 2013 , 920 p. (ISBN 9780313399237), p. 200\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 29-30.\n↑ a b c d e et f Duncan 2010, p. 648.\n↑ a b c d et e « Underground Comix Overview by Lambiek », sur lambiek.net, 29 mai 2006 (consulté le 10 juin 2012 )\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 39.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 25.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 27.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 31.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 33.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 40.\n↑ a b et c Gabilliet 2005, p. 96.\n↑ a et b Duncan et Smith 2009, p. 54.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 44.\n↑ a b c d e f g et h Duncan 2010, p. 649.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 49.\n↑ a b et c Lopes 2009, p. 76.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 254.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 52.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 53.\n↑ a et b Lopes 2009, p. 77.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 54.\n↑ Gabilliet 2005, p. 98.\n↑ a b c d e f et g Duncan 2010, p. 650.\n↑ (en) Lambiek comic shop and studio in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, « Comic creator: Fay King », sur lambiek.net, 14 décembre 2006 (consulté le 16 août 2018 )\n↑ (en) Betsy Gomez, « Disney’s Bloody Attack on The Air Pirates », sur cbldf.org, 6 mai 213 (consulté le 24 mai 2020 ).\n↑ a b et c Lopes 2009, p. 78.\n↑ Lopes 2009, p. 85.\n↑ (en) Joe Sergi, « Obscenity Case Files: People of New York v. Kirkpatrick (Zap Comix #4) », sur cbldf.org, 2021 (consulté le 9 avril 2021 ).\n↑ a b et c Lopes 2009, p. 86.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 10.\n↑ (en) Jason Sacks, Keith Dallas et Dave Dykema, American Comic Book Chronicles : The 1970s , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2014 , 288 p. (ISBN 9781605490564, lire en ligne), p. 240.\n↑ Duncan 2010, p. 654.\n↑ a b c d et e Estren 2012, p. 17.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 109.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 23.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 215.\n↑ (en) Björn Saemann, How Comics Reflect Society : The Development of American Superheroes , Grin Verlag, 2011 , 48 p. (ISBN 978-3-640-83112-8, lire en ligne), p. 8.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 206.\n↑ (en) Gary Groth et Spain Rodriguez, « The Spain Interview », The Comic Journal, no 206,‎ août 1998 (lire en ligne)\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 156.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 157.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 178.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 180.\n↑ (en) M. Steven Fox, « Foolbert Sturgeon's Jesus Comics », sur comixjoint.com (consulté le 30 mars 2021 ).\n↑ (en) M. Steven Fox, « God Nose », sur comixjoint.com (consulté le 30 mars 2021 ).\n↑ a et b Booker 2014, p. 745.\n↑ (en) Diana Green, « Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary » , dans M. Keith Booker (dir.), Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels , Santa Barbara, Grenwood, 2010 , xxii-xix-763 p. (ISBN 9780313357466), p. 56-58.\n↑ Booker 2014, p. 213.\n↑ a et b Lopes 2009, p. 82.\n↑ (en) M. Steven Fox, « Dope Comix », sur comixjoint.com (consulté le 12 avril 2021 ).\n↑ (en) « The Comics Code of 1954 », sur cbldf.org, 1954 (consulté le 24 mars 2021 ).\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 140.\n↑ a et b Estren 2012, p. 142.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 146.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 115-124.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 144.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 127.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 129.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 128.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 129-130.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 132.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 130.\n↑ (en) Trina Robbins (interviewée) et Bill Sherman (intervieweur), « The Trina Robbins Interview », The Comics Journal, no 53,‎ janvier 1980 , p. 46-58 (lire en ligne)\n↑ a b c d et e Lopes 2009.\n↑ (en) Trina Robbins, « Feminism » , dans M. Keith Booker (dir.), Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels , Santa Barbara, Grenwood, 2010 , xxii-xix-763 p. (ISBN 9780313357466, lire en ligne), p. 213.\n↑ (en) Lambiek comic shop and studio in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, « Comic creator: Joyce Farmer », sur lambiek.net, 6 janvier 2017 (consulté le 28 novembre 2018 )\n↑ (en) « Issue Checklist for Creator Trina Robbins », sur comics.org (consulté le 13 avril 2021 ).\n↑ Lopes 2009, p. 84\n↑ a b c et d Jean-Pierre Mercier, « Underground », sur neuviemeart.citebd.org, mars 2017 (consulté le 13 mars 2021 ).\n↑ Lopes 2009, p. 79.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 42.\n↑ Hatfield 2009, p. 8.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 237.\n↑ a et b Nyberg 1998, p. 138.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 43.\n↑ Gabilliet 2005, p. 97.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 250.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 253.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 246.\n↑ a b et c Estren 2012, p. 249.\n↑ (en) « Fritz the Cat », sur rottentomatoes (consulté le 8 avril 2021 ).\n↑ (en-US) Tasha Robinson, « Ralph Bakshi - Interview », sur The A.V. Club (consulté le 29 juin 2019 )\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 259.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 257.\n↑ Estren 2012, p. 258.\n↑ Hatfield 2009, p. 20.\n↑ Hatfield 2009, p. 21.\n↑ Hatfield 2009, p. 25.\n↑ Hatfield 2009, p. 26.\n↑ (en) « Hall of Fame », sur comic-con.org (consulté le 16 avril 2021 ).\n↑ « Crumb et Uderzo primés à Angoulême », Libération,‎ 1er février 1999 (ISSN 0335-1793, lire en ligne, consulté le 16 avril 2021 ).\n↑ a et b « Le génie de Spiegelman récompensé à Angoulême », sur rts.ch, 31 janvier 2011 (consulté le 16 avril 2021 )\n↑ Nicolas Tellop, « dessine-moi un monstre », sur neuviemeart.citebd.org, mars 2019 (consulté le 17 avril 2021 ).\n↑ Blanche Delaborde, « ah ! nana : les femmes humanoïdes », sur neuviemeart.citebd.org, Cité internationale de la bande dessinée et de l'image, janvier 2006 (ISSN 2108-6893, consulté le 18 mai 2015 )\nBibliographie[modifier | modifier le code]\n(en) M.Keith Booker, Comics through Time : A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas , vol. 4, ABC-Clio, 2014 (ISBN 9780313397516, lire en ligne)\n(en) Jon B. Cooke et David Roach, Warren Companion : The Ultimate Reference Guide , TwoMorrows Publishing, 2001 , 272 p. (ISBN 189390508X, lire en ligne)\n(en) Randy Duncan, « Underground and Adult Comics » , dans M. Keith Booker, Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels , Santa Barbara, Grenwood, 2010 , xxii-xix-763 p. (ISBN 9780313357466, lire en ligne), p. 647-655.\n(en) Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith, The Power of Comics : History, Form & Culture , The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2009 , 346 p. (ISBN 978-0826429360, lire en ligne)\n(en) Mark James Estren, A History of Underground Comics , Ronin Publishing, 2012 , 3e éd., 319 p. (ISBN 9781579511562, lire en ligne)\nJean-Paul Gabilliet, Des comics et des hommes : histoire culturelle des comic books aux Etats-Unis , Nantes, Éditions du Temps, 2005 , 483 p. (ISBN 2-84274-309-1, lire en ligne)\nPatrick Gaumer, « BD & underground » , dans Guide totem : La BD , Larousse, 2002 (ISBN 9782035051301), p. 50-52\n(en) Charles Hatfield, Alternative Comics : An Emerging Literature , Jackson, University Press of Mississippi, 2009 , 256 p. (ISBN 9781604735871).\n(en) Bob Levin, The Pirates and the Mouse : Disney's War Against the Counterculture , Fantagraphics, 2003 , 270 p. (ISBN 156097530X, lire en ligne)\n(en) Paul Lopes, Demanding Respect : The Evolution of the American Comic Book , Temple University Press, 2009 , 260 p. (ISBN 978-1-59213-443-4, lire en ligne), p. 82\n(en) Amy Kiste Nyberg, Seal of Approval : The History of the Comics Code , Jackson (Miss.), University Press of Mississippi, 1998 , 224 p. (ISBN 0-87805-975-X, lire en ligne)\n(en) Leonard Rifas, « Race and Comix » , dans Frederick Luis Aldama, Multicultural Comics: From Zap to Blue Beetle , Austin, University of Texas Press, coll. « Cognitive Approaches to Literature and Culture », 2010 (ISBN 9780292722811, présentation en ligne), p. 27-38.\nVoir aussi[modifier | modifier le code]\nArticles connexes[modifier | modifier le code]\nBande dessinée alternative\nRAW\nLiens externes[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotice dans un dictionnaire ou une encyclopédie généraliste :\nEncyclopædia Britannica\nv · m\nLes Comics, les bandes dessinées américaines\nFormats\nComic strip (Bande quotidienne · Bande complémentaire) · Page dominicale · Comic book · Roman graphique\nHistoire\nÂge de platine (fin XIXe siècle-1938) · Âge d'or (1938-1954) · Âge d'argent (1956-1970) · Âge de bronze (1970-1986) · Âge moderne (depuis 1986)\nCourants\nComics mainstream · Comics pour adultes · Comics underground · Comics indépendant · Comics alternatif\nGenres\nComics d'horreur · Romance comics\nÉconomie des comics · Chronologie\nv · m\nComics underground\nAuteurs et autrices\nAir Pirates\nLynda Barry\nJoel Beck\nVaughn Bodé\nMichele Brand\nLyn Chevli\nRobert Crumb\nKim Deitch\nJoyce Farmer\nShary Flenniken\nMelinda Gebbie\nRick Griffin\nJustin Green\nRoberta Gregory\nRory Hayes\nJaxon\nDenis Kitchen\nAline Kominsky\nKrystine Kryttre\nBobby London\nJay Lynch\nLee Marrs\nBarbara Mendes\nPatricia Moodian\nVictor Moscoso\nWilly Murphy\nDiane Noomin\nDan O'Neill\nTrina Robbins\nSpain Rodriguez\nSharon Rudahl\nDori Seda\nGilbert Shelton\nArt Spiegelman\nFrank Stack\nRobert Williams\nSkip Williamson\nS. Clay Wilson\nMary Wings\nPublications\nBinky Brown rencontre la Vierge Marie\nGod Nose\nGothic Blimp Works\nIt Ain't Me, Babe\nBig Yum Yum\nTits & Clits\nTwisted Sisters\nWimmen's Comix\nYellow Dog\nZap Comix\nPersonnages de fiction\nCheech Wizard\nLes Fabuleux Freak Brothers\nFritz le chat\nMr. Natural\nWonder Wart-Hog\nÉditeurs et maisons d'édition\nDon Donahue\nKitchen Sink Press\nLast Gasp\nPrint Mint\nRip Off Press\nŒuvres dérivées\nFritz le chat\nLes Neuf Vies de Fritz le chat\nv · m\nLexique de la bande dessinée\nDénominations\nBande dessinée par pays · Bande dessinée · Franco-belge · Comics · Européenne · Manga - Manhua - Manhwa - Manfra · Historieta · Fumetti\nComposition\nBande · Case · Comic strip · Gaufrier · Onomatopée · Planche · Phylactère · Récitatif\nMétiers\nAuteur de bande dessinée · Scénariste de bande dessinée · Dessinateur humoristique · Mangaka · Coloriste · Lettreur · Maison d'édition de bande dessinée · Étude de la bande dessinée\nGenres\nAdaptation d'une œuvre · Alternative · Animalière · Autobiographique · Aventure · Documentaire · Érotique · Fantasy · Fantastique · Historique · Horreur · Humour · Jeunesse · Mainstream · Muette · Pédagogique · Policière · Politique · Romance · Science-fiction · Série concept · Underground · Western\nFormats\nAlbum · Bande dessinée en ligne · Bande dessinée verticale · Bande dessinée sur téléphone mobile  · Bande quotidienne · Bande complémentaire · Page dominicale · Blog BD · Comic book · Fanzine de bande dessinée · One shot · Petit format · Roman graphique · Webtoon\nProcédés\nCarte à gratter · Couleur directe · Crayonné · Effet Marey · Encrage · Hachures · Lettrage · Masquage · Mise en couleur · Storyboard · Trame\nPortail des comics\nPortail des années 1960\nPortail des années 1970\nCet article est reconnu comme « article de qualité » depuis sa version du 27 mai 2021 (comparer avec la version actuelle).\nPour toute information complémentaire, consulter sa page de discussion et le vote l'ayant promu.\nLa version du 27 mai 2021 de cet article a été reconnue comme « article de qualité », c'est-à-dire qu'elle répond à des critères de qualité concernant le style, la clarté, la pertinence, la citation des sources et l'illustration.\nCe document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comics_underground&oldid=186199749 ».\nCatégories :\nComics\nComics underground\nCulture underground\nCatégories cachées :\nPage utilisant le modèle Autorité inactif\nPage pointant vers des bases externes\nPage pointant vers des dictionnaires ou encyclopédies généralistes\nPage utilisant P1417\nPage utilisant un modèle Bases inactif\nPortail:Comics/Articles liés\nPortail:Bande dessinée/Articles liés\nPortail:Années 1960/Articles liés\nPortail:XXe siècle/Articles liés\nPortail:Époque contemporaine/Articles liés\nPortail:Histoire/Articles liés\nPortail:Années 1970/Articles liés\nArticle de qualité\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 9 septembre 2021 à 22:47.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des 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{"content":"Biganos [biɡanɔs] (Viganòs[1] en gascon) est une commune du Sud-Ouest de la France, située dans le département de la Gironde en région Nouvelle-Aquitaine.\nSes habitants sont appelés les Boïens.\nSommaire\n1 Géographie\n1.1 Communes limitrophes\n1.2 Climat\n2 Urbanisme\n2.1 Typologie\n2.2 Occupation des sols\n3 Toponymie\n4 Histoire\n4.1 Antiquité et Moyen Âge\n4.2 Époque moderne\n4.3 Époque contemporaine\n5 Héraldique\n6 Politique et administration\n6.1 Tendances politiques et résultats\n6.2 Liste des maires\n7 Démographie\n8 Économie\n9 Lieux et monuments\n10 Personnalités liées à la commune\n11 Équipements et services\n11.1 Sports\n11.2 Culture et loisirs\n11.3 Enseignement\n11.4 Ligne de bus\n11.5 Jumelages\n12 Notes et références\n12.1 Notes et cartes\n12.2 Références\n13 Voir aussi\n13.1 Articles connexes\n13.2 Liens externes\nGéographie[modifier | modifier le code]\nOpenStreetMap Limite communale.\nCarte du bassin d'Arcachon.\nCommune située dans le Pays de Buch au cœur du parc naturel régional des Landes de Gascogne, Biganos est l'une des dix localités qui bordent le Bassin d'Arcachon et se trouve à la croisée des chemins du nord et sud du bassin.\nLa ville est desservie par la SNCF avec la Gare de Facture-Biganos qui est située sur la ligne Bordeaux - Irun (services TER Nouvelle-Aquitaine Bordeaux-Arcachon, Bordeaux-Irun et Bordeaux-Tarbes).\nBiganos est située à 36 km de l'aéroport de Bordeaux-Mérignac.\nCommunes limitrophes[modifier | modifier le code]\nCommunes limitrophes de Biganos\nAudenge\nLe Teich Marcheprime\nMios\nClimat[modifier | modifier le code]\nLe climat qui caractérise la commune est qualifié, en 2010, de « climat océanique franc », selon la typologie des climats de la France qui compte alors huit grands types de climats en métropole[2]. En 2020, la commune ressort du type « climat océanique » dans la classification établie par Météo-France, qui ne compte désormais, en première approche, que cinq grands types de climats en métropole. Ce type de climat se traduit par des températures douces et une pluviométrie relativement abondante (en liaison avec les perturbations venant de l'Atlantique), répartie tout au long de l'année avec un léger maximum d'octobre à février[3].\nLes paramètres climatiques qui ont permis d’établir la typologie de 2010 comportent six variables pour les températures et huit pour les précipitations, dont les valeurs correspondent aux données mensuelles sur la normale 1971-2000[4]. Les sept principales variables caractérisant la commune sont présentées dans l'encadré ci-après.\nParamètres climatiques communaux sur la période 1971-2000[2]\nMoyenne annuelle de température : 13 °C\nNombre de jours avec une température inférieure à −5 °C : 2,4 j\nNombre de jours avec une température supérieure à 30 °C : 5,4 j\nAmplitude thermique annuelle[Note 1] : 13,9 °C\nCumuls annuels de précipitation[Note 2] : 962 mm\nNombre de jours de précipitation en janvier : 12,6 j\nNombre de jours de précipitation en juillet : 7 j\nAvec le changement climatique, ces variables ont évolué. Une étude réalisée en 2014 par la Direction générale de l'Énergie et du Climat[6] complétée par des études régionales[7] prévoit en effet que la température moyenne devrait croître et la pluviométrie moyenne baisser, avec toutefois de fortes variations régionales. Ces changements peuvent être constatés sur la station météorologique de Météo-France la plus proche, « Le Barp », sur la commune du Barp, mise en service en 1992[8] et qui se trouve à 17 km à vol d'oiseau[9],[Note 3], où la température moyenne annuelle est de 13,6 °C et la hauteur de précipitations de 961,6 mm pour la période 1981-2010[10]. Sur la station météorologique historique la plus proche, « Le Temple », sur la commune du Temple, mise en service en 1984 et à 26 km[11], la température moyenne annuelle évolue de pour 1981-2010[12] à pour 1991-2020[13].\nUrbanisme[modifier | modifier le code]\nTypologie[modifier | modifier le code]\nBiganos est une commune urbaine, car elle fait partie des communes denses ou de densité intermédiaire, au sens de la grille communale de densité de l'Insee[Note 4],[14],[15],[16]. Elle appartient à l'unité urbaine de Biganos, une agglomération intra-départementale regroupant 2 communes[17] et 19 257 habitants en 2018, dont elle est ville-centre[18],[19].\nPar ailleurs la commune fait partie de l'aire d'attraction de Bordeaux, dont elle est une commune de la couronne[Note 5]. Cette aire, qui regroupe 275 communes, est catégorisée dans les aires de 700 000 habitants ou plus (hors Paris)[20],[21].\nLa commune, bordée par l'océan Atlantique, est également une commune littorale au sens de la loi du 3 janvier 1986 , dite loi littoral[22]. Des dispositions spécifiques d’urbanisme s’y appliquent dès lors afin de préserver les espaces naturels, les sites, les paysages et l’équilibre écologique du littoral, comme par exemple le principe d'inconstructibilité, en dehors des espaces urbanisés, sur la bande littorale des 100 mètres, ou plus si le plan local d’urbanisme le prévoit[23],[24].\nOccupation des sols[modifier | modifier le code]\nCarte des infrastructures et de l'occupation des sols de la commune en 2018 (CLC).\nL'occupation des sols de la commune, telle qu'elle ressort de la base de données européenne d’occupation biophysique des sols Corine Land Cover (CLC), est marquée par l'importance des forêts et milieux semi-naturels (76 % en 2018), une proportion sensiblement équivalente à celle de 1990 (75,4 %). La répartition détaillée en 2018 est la suivante : forêts (50,4 %), milieux à végétation arbustive et/ou herbacée (25,6 %), zones urbanisées (15,1 %), zones industrielles ou commerciales et réseaux de communication (3,6 %), zones agricoles hétérogènes (2,7 %), zones humides côtières (2,6 %)[25].\nL'IGN met par ailleurs à disposition un outil en ligne permettant de comparer l’évolution dans le temps de l’occupation des sols de la commune (ou de territoires à des échelles différentes). Plusieurs époques sont accessibles sous forme de cartes ou photos aériennes : la carte de Cassini (XVIIIe siècle), la carte d'état-major (1820-1866) et la période actuelle (1950 à aujourd'hui)[Carte 1].\nToponymie[modifier | modifier le code]\nLe toponyme actuel est attesté sous la même forme depuis 1339 (Sanctus Gervasius de Biganos).\nAuparavant, le quartier de la Mothe était la capitale du pays de Buch, connue sous les noms :\nBoios[26] ou Boii (du nom du peuple, les boii), Bogium (1307-1317)… ;\nla Mota de Bugh (1289), La Mothe en Buch, Lamothe…\nLe toponyme Biganos est un nom de domaine aquitano-roman, vraisemblablement basé sur le nom de personne *Vicanus (du latin vicanus 'villageois') et le suffixe locatif -otz / -os[27].\nHistoire[modifier | modifier le code]\nAntiquité et Moyen Âge[modifier | modifier le code]\nPlusieurs nécropoles tumulaires du premier âge du fer ont été signalées sur la rive gauche du ruisseau de Tagon par le Dr Peyneau en 1926 : elles jalonnent probablement un chemin protohistorique reliant les vallées de la Garonne et de la Leyre[28]. Des traces d'occupation ont été repérées au lieu-dit Lamothe (dans le delta de l'Eyre entre Biganos et Le Teich). Les Gaulois exploitaient alors l'alios en tant que minerai de fer.\nLe gentilé Boïen de Biganos est le nom du peuple local (il existe un peuple celtique de même nom en Bohème).\nLe suffixe -os- de Biganos se retrouve dans une bonne partie de la Gascogne et notamment dans plusieurs lieux situés au bord de la Leyre et jusqu'au bord du bassin d'Arcachon (Biganos, Mios, Caudos, Andernos, Pissos) ; il s'agit du résultat d'un suffixe -otz(e), propre à l'aquitain, langue considérée comme proto-basque, parlée avant la colonisation romaine[29]. Le cas de Lugos, dans la même zone, est cependant analogique.\nLe chemin Bougès, qui reliait Burdigala à La Mothe, passait par les Argenteyres (centré sur l'actuel quartier bas), réécrit aujourd'hui les Argentières.\nÉpoque moderne[modifier | modifier le code]\nCette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. Votre aide est la bienvenue ! Comment faire ?\nPour l'état de la commune au XVIIIe siècle, voir l'ouvrage de Jacques Baurein[30].\nÉpoque contemporaine[modifier | modifier le code]\nCette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. Votre aide est la bienvenue ! Comment faire ?\nAu début du XXe siècle, la commune était desservie par le chemin de fer. Le lieu-dit Facture voyait la séparation de la ligne Bordeaux-Arcachon et de la ligne Bordeaux-Bayonne-Irun. Il existait encore à Biganos un reste d'industrie métallurgique avec la présence de petites fonderies.\nC'est de Facture que sont parties les locomotives CC 7107 et BB 9004 détentrices des records de vitesse sur rail de 1955 ayant permis de cadrer les problèmes de l'accès à la grande vitesse préalables au développement des futurs TGV.\nLa fin du XXe siècle a vu un fort développement démographique de la ville malgré le déclin de ses industries. Au début du XXIe siècle, la métallurgie n'est qu'un souvenir. La Cellulose du Pin, devenue Smurfit Kappa, est toujours la première unité européenne de production de papier kraft base pour cartons, mais celle-ci, désormais très automatisée, n'est plus le premier employeur de la commune (c'est le magasin Auchan). Désormais relativement étendue, la ville englobe ses anciens bourgs disjoints dont Facture et d'autres, maintenant quartiers de la ville.\nHéraldique[modifier | modifier le code]\nLes armes de Biganos se blasonnent ainsi :\nD'azur à la tour d'argent ouverte et maçonnée de sable sur une terrasse de sinople.\nLe logo de Biganos\nLes gouttes d'eau représentent les sept rivières qui sont sous la ville de Biganos.\nLe vert de la feuille représente l'environnement de la forêt.\nLe orange représente les pinèdes : quand les pins sont coupés, la sève ressort avec cette couleur rouge orangé.\nLe « A » de Biganos représente l'entrée du Bassin et du delta de la Leyre, d'où le nom « Porte du bassin».\nPolitique et administration[modifier | modifier le code]\nTendances politiques et résultats[modifier | modifier le code]\nArticle connexe : Élections municipales de 2014 en Gironde.\nCette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. Votre aide est la bienvenue ! Comment faire ?\nListe des maires[modifier | modifier le code]\nListe des maires successifs\nPériode\nIdentité\nÉtiquette\nQualité\nLes données manquantes sont à compléter.\n1970 1977 Raymond Labache\nmars 1977 2005 Lucien Mounaix DVG puis SE Instituteur puis directeur d'école primaire\n2005 2008 Martine Galloux\nmars 2008 En cours Bruno Lafon SE Sylviculteur\nPrésident de la communauté d'agglomération\nDémographie[modifier | modifier le code]\nL'évolution du nombre d'habitants est connue à travers les recensements de la population effectués dans la commune depuis 1793. À partir de 2006, les populations légales des communes sont publiées annuellement par l'Insee. Le recensement repose désormais sur une collecte d'information annuelle, concernant successivement tous les territoires communaux au cours d'une période de cinq ans. Pour les communes de moins de 10 000 habitants, une enquête de recensement portant sur toute la population est réalisée tous les cinq ans, les populations légales des années intermédiaires étant quant à elles estimées par interpolation ou extrapolation[31]. Pour la commune, le premier recensement exhaustif entrant dans le cadre du nouveau dispositif a été réalisé en 2008[32].\nEn 2018, la commune comptait 10 921 habitants[Note 6], en augmentation de 9,76 % par rapport à 2013 (Gironde : +6,4 %, France hors Mayotte : +1,78 %).\nÉvolution de la population [ modifier ]\n1793\n1800\n1806\n1821\n1831\n1836\n1841\n1846\n1851\n570 614 780 708 1 019 1 083 1 085 1 268 1 149\nÉvolution de la population [ modifier ], suite (1)\n1856\n1861\n1866\n1872\n1876\n1881\n1886\n1891\n1896\n1 300 1 591 1 786 1 669 1 735 1 866 1 920 1 926 2 039\nÉvolution de la population [ modifier ], suite (2)\n1901\n1906\n1911\n1921\n1926\n1931\n1936\n1946\n1954\n1 987 2 105 2 165 2 275 2 776 2 940 3 106 2 717 3 344\nÉvolution de la population [ modifier ], suite (3)\n1962\n1968\n1975\n1982\n1990\n1999\n2006\n2007\n2008\n3 781 4 213 4 416 4 588 5 908 6 950 8 622 8 861 9 099\nÉvolution de la population [ modifier ], suite (4)\n2013\n2018\n-\n-\n-\n-\n-\n-\n-\n9 950 10 921 - - - - - - -\nDe 1962 à 1999 : population sans doubles comptes ; pour les dates suivantes : population municipale.\n(Sources : Ldh/EHESS/Cassini jusqu'en 1999[33] puis Insee à partir de 2006[34].)\nHistogramme de l'évolution démographique\nÉconomie[modifier | modifier le code]\nCet article ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources ( octobre 2009 ).\nSi vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de référence ou si vous connaissez des sites web de qualité traitant du thème abordé ici, merci de compléter l'article en donnant les références utiles à sa vérifiabilité et en les liant à la section « Notes et références »\nEn pratique : Quelles sources sont attendues ? Comment ajouter mes sources ?\nBiganos présente un élevage d'esturgeons pour le caviar d'appellation « caviar d'Aquitaine », installé lui aussi sur un moulin, le moulin de la Cassadote, à l'origine un moulin construit sur le ruisseau du Lacanau, qui produisait de la farine. Plus tard, une pisciculture a été installée et la production d'esturgeons. Après plusieurs essais, une variété a été acclimatée avec succès.\nBiganos est aussi connue pour son usine, exploitant la forêt des Landes pour la fabrication de papier kraft, appartenant actuellement à la société internationale Smurfit Kappa après avoir appartenu pendant de longues années à Saint-Gobain. Cette industrie est très ancienne sur le site puisqu'à l'origine, un moulin papetier avait été construit sur le ruisseau du Lacanau de Mios au lieu-dit Pont Nau dont on peut encore voir les vestiges à l'entrée sud de la ville.\nLieux et monuments[modifier | modifier le code]\nDeux ports authentiques conservés à Biganos avec leurs pinasses et leurs cabanes d'ostréiculteurs.\nLe port de Biganos classé en zone protégée. Il est le seul port placé en pleine forêt.\nLe port des Tuiles sous protection du conservatoire du littoral et des rivages.\nLe moulin de la Cassadotte avec la pisciculture et la production de caviar de la Gironde.\nL'église Saint-Gervais construite en 1866 et qui abrite des fonts baptismaux romains.\nLe site archéologique de Biganos constitué d'une ville romaine enfouie entre les rivières de l'Eyre et de l'Eyga. Des hommes ont été enterrés à l'époque mérovingienne dans des sarcophages de pierre près de l'église paléochrétienne de Boii ou Boios.\nL'île de Malprat (mauvais pré), située dans le delta de l'Eyre.\nPersonnalités liées à la commune[modifier | modifier le code]\nRobert Paul (né le 20 avril 1910 à Biganos - mort le 15 décembre 1998 ), athlète français qui a remporté 12 titres nationaux dans quatre disciplines différentes, de sprint et de saut. Il a été essentiellement licencié au CA Bègles à la fin des années 1920, au Racing club de France au milieu des années 1930, et de nouveau à Bègles durant la guerre. Il a participé aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1936. Son palmarès est riche de 25 sélections en équipe de France A, de 1929 à 1937, 7 records de France du saut en longueur, vice-champion d'Europe du relais 4×400 m en 1934, champion de Grande-Bretagne du saut en longueur en 1934 et 1935, champion de France du 100 m, champion de France du 200 m, 6 titres de champion de France de saut en longueur, champion de France de triple-saut.\nÉquipements et services[modifier | modifier le code]\nSports[modifier | modifier le code]\nÀ Biganos, il y a trois stades de football, un stade de rugby et deux salles polyvalentes multisports.\nÀ l'aube de la saison 2008/2009, le club de football, l'Association Sportive Facture Biganos Boïen section football remonte en Promotion de Ligue après trois années de purgatoire en « District ». Ayant connu les hautes sphères du football aquitain pendant les années 1990, l'ASFBB voulait retrouver le bon niveau. Après deux montées en deux saisons, les joueurs du club des Papetiers retrouvent la Ligue d'Aquitaine. Début 2009, on apprend la signature surprise de l'ancien international français Jean-Pierre Papin comme joueur au sein de ce club. Le club évolue aujourd’hui[Quand ?] en Division Honneur Régionale (DHR).\nEn handball féminin, l'« Entente Mios-Biganos » participe au championnat de France de Division 1 de 2003 à 2013, côtoyant régulièrement l'élite et, de temps en temps, le niveau européen. En 2011, l'équipe de handball féminine a gagné une coupe d'Europe.\nEn rugby à XIII, l'équipe de rugby de Facture XIII gagne la Coupe Nationale Amateurs devenue depuis \"Coupe Falcou\" à cinq reprises, avec un dernier titre en 1962. En 2009, le rugby à XIII redémarre sur le bassin d'Arcachon. Une équipe féminine participe au championnat régional en 2009-2010, puis accède à l'Elite et remporte magnifiquement le titre national à quatre reprises. Cette équipe féminine rejoint en 2019 la section rugby à XIII des Girondins de Bordeaux, dans le cadre d'une entente entre les deux clubs.\nUne équipe masculine participe au championnat régional en 2016-2017. En 2009, le public du stade municipal de Biganos a vu se dérouler la première finale de la \"Super Coupe\" de rugby à XIII organisée par le club local et Orange TV.\nCulture et loisirs[modifier | modifier le code]\nCanoë et/ou kayak sur la Leyre ;\nPiste cyclable intégrée dans un circuit faisant le tour du bassin d'Arcachon ;\nSalle de cinéma et théâtre ;\nUne bibliothèque municipale ;\nAssociations présentes sur le territoire communal.\nPiste de karting Top Gun Evasion.\nTrampoline, à côté du Lidl.\nEnseignement[modifier | modifier le code]\nTrois groupes scolaires publics :\nÉcole maternelle Marcel Pagnol\nÉcole élémentaire Jules Ferry\nÉcole primaire du Lac Vert qui accueille les enfants du quartier du Lac-Vert et des alentours\nCollège public Jean Zay\nLycée public de la Côte d'Argent\nLigne de bus[modifier | modifier le code]\nLiaisons régulières :\nAndernos/Mios par autocar CITRAM Aquitaine no 610, pour le transport des enfants vers les établissements scolaires.\nJumelages[modifier | modifier le code]\nSaint-Martin-de-Fontenay (France) dans le Calvados, près de Caen.\nNotes et références[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotes et cartes[modifier | modifier le code]\nNotes\n↑ L'amplitude thermique annuelle mesure la différence entre la température moyenne de juillet et celle de janvier. Cette variable est généralement reconnue comme critère de discrimination entre climats océaniques et continentaux.\n↑ Une précipitation, en météorologie, est un ensemble organisé de particules d'eau liquide ou solide tombant en chute libre au sein de l'atmosphère. La quantité de précipitation atteignant une portion de surface terrestre donnée en un intervalle de temps donné est évaluée par la hauteur de précipitation, que mesurent les pluviomètres[5].\n↑ La distance est calculée à vol d'oiseau entre la station météorologique proprement dite et le chef-lieu de commune.\n↑ Selon le zonage des communes rurales et urbaines publié en novembre 2020, en application de la nouvelle définition de la ruralité validée le 14 novembre 2020 en comité interministériel des ruralités.\n↑ La notion d'aire d'attraction des villes a remplacé en octobre 2020 l'ancienne notion d'aire urbaine, pour permettre des comparaisons cohérentes avec les autres pays de l'Union européenne.\n↑ Population municipale légale en vigueur au 1er janvier 2021, millésimée 2018, définie dans les limites territoriales en vigueur au 1er janvier 2020, date de référence statistique : 1er janvier 2018.\nCartes\n↑ IGN, « Évolution de l'occupation des sols de la commune sur cartes et photos aériennes anciennes. », sur remonterletemps.ign.fr (consulté le 18 avril 2021 ). Pour comparer l'évolution entre deux dates, cliquer sur le bas de la ligne séparative verticale et la déplacer à droite ou à gauche. Pour comparer deux autres cartes, choisir les cartes dans les fenêtres en haut à gauche de l'écran.\nRéférences[modifier | modifier le code]\n↑ Biganos, sur Gasconha.com (consulté le 9 février 2010).\n↑ a et b Daniel Joly, Thierry Brossard, Hervé Cardot, Jean Cavailhes, Mohamed Hilal et Pierre Wavresky, « Les types de climats en France, une construction spatiale », Cybergéo, revue européenne de géographie - European Journal of Geography, no 501,‎ 18 juin 2010 (DOI https://doi.org/10.4000/cybergeo.23155, lire en ligne, consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Le climat en France métropolitaine », sur http://www.meteofrance.fr/, 4 février 2020 (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Définition d’une normale climatologique », sur http://www.meteofrance.fr/ (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ Glossaire – Précipitation, Météo-France\n↑ « Le climat de la France au XXIe siècle - Volume 4 - Scénarios régionalisés : édition 2014 pour la métropole et les régions d’outre-mer », sur https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/ (consulté le 12 juin 2021 ).\n↑ [PDF]« Observatoire régional sur l'agriculture et le changement climatique (oracle) Nouvelle-Aquitaine », sur nouvelle-aquitaine.chambres-agriculture.fr, 2018 (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Station Météo-France Le Barp - métadonnées », sur donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Orthodromie entre Biganos et Le Barp », sur fr.distance.to (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 ).\n↑ « Station Météo-France Le Barp - fiche climatologique - statistiques 1981-2010 et records », sur donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 ).\n↑ « Orthodromie entre Biganos et Le Temple », sur fr.distance.to (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 ).\n↑ « Station météorologique de Le Temple - Normales pour la période 1981-2010 », sur https://www.infoclimat.fr/ (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Station météorologique de Le Temple - Normales pour la période 1991-2020 », sur https://www.infoclimat.fr/ (consulté le 14 juillet 2021 )\n↑ « Typologie urbain / rural », sur www.observatoire-des-territoires.gouv.fr (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Commune urbaine - définition », sur le site de l’Insee (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Comprendre la grille de densité », sur www.observatoire-des-territoires.gouv.fr (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Unité urbaine 2020 de Biganos », sur https://www.insee.fr/ (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Base des unités urbaines 2020 », sur www.insee.fr, 21 octobre 2020 (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ Vianney Costemalle, « Toujours plus d’habitants dans les unités urbaines », sur insee.fr, 21 octobre 2020 (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Base des aires d'attraction des villes 2020. », sur insee.fr, 21 octobre 2020 (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ Marie-Pierre de Bellefon, Pascal Eusebio, Jocelyn Forest, Olivier Pégaz-Blanc et Raymond Warnod (Insee), « En France, neuf personnes sur dix vivent dans l’aire d’attraction d’une ville », sur insee.fr, 21 octobre 2020 (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Les communes soumises à la loi littoral. », sur www.observatoire-des-territoires.gouv.fr, 2021 (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « La loi littoral », sur www.collectivites-locales.gouv.fr (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « Loi relative à l’aménagement, la protection et la mise en valeur du littoral. », sur www.cohesion-territoires.gouv.fr (consulté le 27 mars 2021 ).\n↑ « CORINE Land Cover (CLC) - Répartition des superficies en 15 postes d'occupation des sols (métropole). », sur le site des données et études statistiques du ministère de la Transition écologique. (consulté le 18 avril 2021 )\n↑ Itinéraire d'Antonin\n↑ Bénédicte Boyrie-Fénié, Institut occitan, Dictionnaire toponymique des communes de Gironde , Pau, Éditions Cairn, octobre 2008 , 402 p. (ISBN 978-2-35068-012-5), p. 71..\n↑ « Vingt siècles d'incertitude ».\n↑ Bénédicte Boyrie-Fénié, Dictionnaire toponymique des communes, Gironde, éd. CAIRN, Pau, 2008, p. 71\n↑ Jacques Baurein, Variétés Bordeloises , t. 3, Bordeaux, 1876 , 2e éd. (1re éd. 1786) (lire en ligne), articles 6.XXVIII et 6.XXIX, p. 375-381\n↑ L'organisation du recensement, sur insee.fr.\n↑ Calendrier départemental des recensements, sur insee.fr.\n↑ Des villages de Cassini aux communes d'aujourd'hui sur le site de l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales.\n↑ Fiches Insee - Populations légales de la commune pour les années 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 et 2018.\nVoir aussi[modifier | modifier le code]\nArticles connexes[modifier | modifier le code]\nBiganos-Lamothe\nListe des communes de la Gironde\nGare de Facture-Biganos\nLiens externes[modifier | modifier le code]\nSur les autres projets Wikimedia :\nBiganos, sur Wikimedia Commons\nBiganos, sur le Wiktionnaire\nNotices d'autorité :\nFichier d’autorité international virtuel\nBibliothèque nationale de France (données)\nGemeinsame Normdatei\nRessource relative à la géographie :\nInsee (communes)\nSite de la ville de Biganos\nSite de l'office de tourisme de Biganos\nBiganos, sur le site de l'Institut géographique national\nFiche de l'usine Smurfit Kappa sur la base de l'Inspection des Installations Classées\nFiche de l'usine Smurfit Kappa sur le Registre français des émissions polluantes\nFiches sur les pollutions de sols générées par l'usine Smurfit-Kappa (base de données BASOL sur les sites et sols pollués)\nv · m\nParc naturel régional des Landes de Gascogne\nCommunes\ndu Pays de Buch : Audenge · Belin-Béliet · Biganos · Lanton · Le Barp · Le Teich · Lugos · Marcheprime · Mios · Salles\nde la Haute-Lande-Girondine : Balizac · Bourideys · Captieux · Cazalis · Escaudes · Giscos · Goualade · Hostens · Le Tuzan · Lartigue · Louchats · Lucmau · Origne · Saint-Léger-de-Balson · Saint-Magne · Saint-Michel-de-Castelnau · Saint-Symphorien\nde la Grande-Lande : Argelouse · Arue · Belhade · Bélis · Brocas · Callen · Canenx-et-Réaut · Commensacq · Garein · Labouheyre · Labrit · Lencouacq · Le Sen · Luglon · Luxey · Maillères · Mano · Moustey · Sabres · Solférino · Sore · Trensacq · Vert\nCentres de découverte de l'environnement\nMaison de la nature du Bassin d'Arcachon · Réserve ornithologique du Teich · Centre de Graoux · Atelier-gîte de Saugnacq-et-Muret\nSites de l'écomusée de la Grande Lande\nMarquèze · Atelier des produits résineux · Musée du patrimoine religieux et des croyances populaires\nAutres musées\nMusée des forges de Brocas · Graine de forêt\nMonuments historiques\nChâteaux de : Belhade · Labrit · Ruat\nÉglises de : Belhade · Biganon · Commensacq · Garein · Lucmau · Mons · Moustey · Origne · Richet · Sabres · Saint-Léger-de-Balson · Saint-Symphorien · Sore\nAutres : Ferme de Pouy · Porte des Anglais de Sore · Usine de réparation de matériel ferroviaire de Saint-Symphorien\nSites protégés\nDomaine de Certes · Lagunes de Brocas · Site de Garlande · Val de l'Eyre\nAutres\nCercles de Gascogne · Fontaines des Landes\nLandes de Gascogne\nv · m\nBassin d’Arcachon\nCommunes\nAndernos-les-Bains\nArcachon\nArès\nAudenge\nBiganos\nGujan-Mestras\nLa Teste-de-Buch\nLanton\nLège-Cap-Ferret\nMios\nLe Teich\nSites\nBanc d'Arguin\nCap Ferret\nCôte d'Argent\nDomaine de Certes\nDune du Pilat\nFlèche et conche du Mimbeau\nÎle aux Oiseaux\nLe Moulleau\nLeyre\nLotissement de Lège\nParc naturel marin du bassin d'Arcachon\nParc naturel régional des Landes de Gascogne\nRéserve ornithologique du Teich\nLes Passes\nPhare du Cap-Ferret\nLe Pyla\nHistoire et traditions\nCabanes tchanquées\nCanal des Landes\nCaptal de Buch\nCasino Mauresque\nFixation des dunes\nGascon\nLandes de Gascogne\nOstréiculture\nPays de Buch\nPinasse\nSource des Abatilles\nVille d'Hiver\nMonument aux morts d'Arcachon\nTransports publics\nBaïa\nÉho!\nTER Nouvelle-Aquitaine\nTGV\nSports\nFootball Club du bassin d'Arcachon\nUS Mios-Biganos\nRoller skating de Gujan-Mestras\nRugby Club bassin d'Arcachon\nv · m\nLes communes les plus peuplées de la région Nouvelle-Aquitaine\n(plus de 10 000 habitants - population municipale en 2018)\nPlus de 200 000 habitants\nBordeaux\nPlus de 100 000 habitants\nLimoges\nPlus de 50 000 habitants\nBayonne · Mérignac · Niort · Pau · Pessac · Poitiers · La Rochelle\nPlus de 30 000 habitants\nAgen · Anglet · Angoulême · Brive-la-Gaillarde · Châtellerault · Périgueux · Saint-Médard-en-Jalles · Talence · Villenave-d'Ornon\nPlus de 20 000 habitants\nBègles · Bergerac · Biarritz · Le Bouscat · Cenon · Dax · Eysines · Gradignan · Gujan-Mestras · Libourne · Lormont · Mont-de-Marsan · Rochefort · Saintes · La Teste-de-Buch · Villeneuve-sur-Lot\nPlus de 10 000 habitants\nAmbarès-et-Lagrave · Andernos-les-Bains · Arcachon · Biganos · Billère · Biscarrosse · Blanquefort · Boulazac Isle Manoire · Bressuire · Bruges · Buxerolles · Cestas · Cognac · Floirac · Guéret · Le Haillan · Hendaye · Léognan · Lons · Marmande · Mios · Oloron-Sainte-Marie · Orthez · Panazol · Parthenay · Royan · Saint-André-de-Cubzac · Saint-Jean-de-Luz · Saint-Junien · Saint-Paul-lès-Dax · Le Taillan-Médoc · Tarnos · Thouars · Tulle · Urrugne\nv · m\nLes agglomérations les plus peuplées de Nouvelle-Aquitaine\nLes unités urbaines de plus de 10 000 habitants en 2017.\nPlus de 100 000 habitants\nBordeaux (927 445 hab.) · Bayonne (242 350 hab.) · Pau (198 907 hab.) · Limoges (182 475 hab.) · Poitiers (131 499 hab.) · La Rochelle (129 298 hab.) · Angoulême (109 055 hab.)\nPlus de 50 000 habitants\nAgen (81 158 hab.) · Brive-la-Gaillarde (75 046 hab.) · Niort (72 894 hab.) · La Teste-de-Buch-Arcachon (66 420 hab.) · Périgueux (65 208 hab.) · Bergerac (64 186 hab.) · Dax (50 366 hab.)\nPlus de 25 000 habitants\nVilleneuve-sur-Lot (48 411 hab.) · Châtellerault (40 721 hab.) · Mont-de-Marsan (39 115 hab.) · Rochefort (38 599 hab.) · Libourne (36 055 hab.) · Royan (35 914 hab.) · Saintes (29 550 hab.) · Marmande (29 394 hab.) · Cognac (26 621 hab.)\nPlus de 10 000 habitants\nSaint-André-de-Cubzac (23 260 hab.) · Tulle (21 889 hab.) · Bressuire (19 519 hab.) · Biganos (18 699 hab.) · Andernos-les-Bains (18 557 hab.) · Parthenay (18 078 hab.) · Thouars (17 181 hab.) · Oloron-Sainte-Marie (16 948 hab.) · Saint-Vincent-de-Tyrosse (15 891 hab.) · Mourenx (14 478 hab.) · Guéret (14 197 hab.) · Biscarrosse (14 182 hab.) · Langon (13 672 hab.) · Orthez (12 952 hab.) · Capbreton (12 349 hab.) · Coutras (12 341 hab.) · La Tremblade (11 824 hab.) · Fumel (11 629 hab.) · Nérac (11 625 hab.) · Montpon-Ménestérol (11 595 hab.) · Saint-Maixent-l'École (11 383 hab.) · Saint-Junien (11 202 hab.) · Blaye (10 486 hab.) · Cézac (10 224 hab.)\nPortail des communes de France\nPortail de la Gironde\nCe document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biganos&oldid=186372724 ».\nCatégories :\nCommune en Gironde\nCommune dans l'arrondissement d'Arcachon\nCommune du parc naturel régional des Landes de Gascogne\nUnité urbaine de Biganos\nAire urbaine de Bordeaux\nBassin d'Arcachon\nCatégories cachées :\nArticle avec géopolygone\nPage utilisant une frise chronologique\nPage avec coordonnées similaires sur Wikidata\nArticle géolocalisé en France\nArticle utilisant une Infobox\nArticle géolocalisé sur Terre\nArticle avec modèle Infobox Commune de France\nArticle avec une section vide ou incomplète\nArticle avec modèle Blason-ville-fr\nArticle avec module Population de France\nArticle manquant de références depuis octobre 2009\nArticle manquant de références/Liste complète\nCatégorie Commons avec lien local identique sur Wikidata\nArticle de Wikipédia avec notice d'autorité\nPage utilisant P374\nPage pointant vers des bases externes\nPage pointant vers des bases relatives à la géographie\nPortail:Communes de France/Articles liés\nPortail:France/Articles liés\nPortail:Europe/Articles liés\nPortail:Gironde/Articles liés\nPortail:Nouvelle-Aquitaine/Articles liés\nPage avec des cartes\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 16 septembre 2021 à 11:28.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis.","warc_headers":{"warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:075ad8ee-932f-49f7-99d9-797bc8fadeac>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","content-length":"33105","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:30:28Z","warc-target-uri":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biganos","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:499b491c-ce3b-4d71-9d48-732925d93670>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:JQFJ2PCZYDA6ABSHLVLQPZZRCKDB665Z","warc-identified-content-language":"fra"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"fr","prob":0.7929653},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"fr","prob":0.98842424},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9996798},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.93948257},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9547091},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9585566},{"label":"fr","prob":0.823647},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9895606},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9707752},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98040444},{"label":"fr","prob":0.93869096},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9370378},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9999585},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97074896},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.932046},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9990802},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8589086},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98338246},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9984878},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.8204055},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9737791},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9944382},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9782293},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9968246},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99432635},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99010885},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9714086},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9503862},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9999098},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99992406},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8499736},{"label":"fr","prob":0.93328243},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9975433},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99780434},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99606574},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9852826},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9970754},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9893091},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.93704176},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98052007},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99003583},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99575365},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9940132},{"label":"fr","prob":0.80621153},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9108909},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.86576736},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9759406},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9985522},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9893476},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99117273},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.98435056},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9768555},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.98435056},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99240863},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99163985},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98065555},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8385974},{"label":"fr","prob":0.94322157},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99473745},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9953667},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98988575},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9990887},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9954324},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9616352},{"label":"fr","prob":0.84246683},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98435056},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9263548},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9579054},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99703646},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9502686},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9997964},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9998358},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9944044},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.90832174},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99341244},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8836524},{"label":"fr","prob":0.995527},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9488864},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.96382034},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9754526},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9654292},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.96254265},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9983172},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9793838},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99643385},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99592423},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8297679},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98814696},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9887741},{"label":"fr","prob":0.94761336},{"label":"fr","prob":0.94287676},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9207821},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9901127},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9981197},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99302024},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99024326},{"label":"fr","prob":0.93139416},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.81183225},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9749999},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9844855},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9959634},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9850749},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.93699014},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99049294},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99006313},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9404489},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9908972},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9972188},{"label":"fr","prob":0.88676316},{"label":"fr","prob":0.8947089},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.8193993},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9741925},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.8455822},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98105985},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9595808},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9138728},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97450525},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9911348},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9907371},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97882617},{"label":"fr","prob":0.97744876},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9949685}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{"content":"Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aide:Accueil/Consulter&oldid=184820903 ».\nCatégories :\nAide de difficulté quelconque\nAide non catégorisée\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 21 juillet 2021 à 09:43.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis.","warc_headers":{"warc-identified-content-language":"fra","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:36:45Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:598f0b04-2714-4433-8874-9d4928a557d9>","content-length":"697","content-type":"text/plain","warc-target-uri":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Sommaire/Consulter","warc-block-digest":"sha1:E4JWF6NY2Q4TEX3DP56YANVBFSP3425W","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:8ebaee47-564e-4f7c-a082-bf211e6d71e7>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"fr","prob":0.9199119},"annotation":["short_sentences"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"fr","prob":0.815009},{"label":"fr","prob":1.0000358},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.99978155},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9981209},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99000746},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98900306}]}}
{"content":"Bonjour, Je n'arrive pas à trouver comment mettre une photo sur cosmos pour ensuite la mettre sur un article qui existe déjà sur Wikipedia....\nQui peut m'aider car je comprend vraiment rien du tout à tout sa ^^ ??Anthony Tempo (discuter) 3 août 2016 à 14:27 (CEST)\nBonjour Anthony Tempo : quelqu'un vous a répondu sur votre page de discussion]. Bonne journée ~Antoniex (discuter) 3 août 2016 à 14:31 (CEST)\nImages 360 ?[modifier le code]\nBonsoir\nAvec les caméras grand public comme la Samsung Gear 360 VR il est possible de réaliser des images en \"360\". Est il possible de les inclure dans des pages Wikipedia (par exemple pour l'intérieur de bâtiments) ? Si oui comment ?\nMerci\napc005 (discuter) 5 décembre 2016 à 20:35 (CET)\nClaude de Romefort, autoportrait 1942 jpg[modifier le code]\nBonjour, En ouvrant l'article Claude de Romefort, je découvre ce matin que son autoportrait dans l'infobox a été supprimé par Jcb le 16 février alors que les autorisations de libre utilisation de cette image ont été envoyées à commons wikipedia par les ayants droits, j'ai écrit mais pas de réponse. Et en plus, cet après midi, je découvre la mention en bandeau sur l'infobox qu'il faudrait une image ??? comment faire si on en met une et que quelqu'un la supprime alors que toutes les autorisations ont été faites en bonne et due forme par les ayants droits ?\nMa question : comment supprimer au moins ce bandeau demandant de mettre une image du peintre puisqu'il y en avait une et qu'elle a été supprimée d'office un mois après ; c'est inutile de souligner cette absence d'image alors que l'image avait été prévue. Merci pour vos réponses.--Tpgrieg (discuter) 18 février 2018 à 15:35 (CET)\nCe document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Discussion_aide:Insérer_une_image&oldid=184066395 ».\nLa dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 23 juin 2021 à 17:02.\nDroit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques.\nWikipedia® est une marque déposée de la Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe 501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis.","warc_headers":{"warc-identified-content-language":"fra","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:ebe6e177-cb9e-4e54-8944-287a425bf37d>","content-length":"2355","content-type":"text/plain","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:22:52Z","warc-block-digest":"sha1:M6S6SQMAZFK3B3SE6Y3PXTAHED6XLFUR","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:17ea34a6-811c-41f5-8614-c232462400ab>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussion_aide:Ins%C3%A9rer_une_image"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"fr","prob":0.9037292},"annotation":null,"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"fr","prob":0.99613035},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9982394},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9970873},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.92079294},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9806712},{"label":"fr","prob":0.96773154},{"label":"fr","prob":0.9990777},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9979423},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99940675},null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9985622},{"label":"fr","prob":0.99000746},{"label":"fr","prob":0.98900306}]}}
{"content":"Пектораль из кургана Толстая Могила (укр. Пектораль із Товстої Могили) — золотая царская пектораль IV века до нашей эры. Была найдена 21 июня 1971 года во время археологических исследований захоронения в кургане Толстая Могила (Днепропетровская область, Украина). Руководитель экспедиции — Б. Н. Мозолевский, заместитель руководителя — Е. В. Черненко.\nСчитается, что пектораль была изготовлена греческими мастерами-ювелирами по заказу знатных скифов. Хранится в киевском Музее исторических драгоценностей Украины и относится к Историческому фонду драгоценных металлов и драгоценных камней Украины.\nЭкспедиция обнаружила многочисленные золотые украшения в двух погребальных камерах, среди которых была и пектораль. Она и железный меч в ножнах с обложенной золотом рукоятью находились в коротком коридоре — дромосе, который соединял погребальную камеру с входной ямой. Масса золотой пекторали — 1140 г, диаметр — более 30 см. Ювелирные техники, которые использовались для её изготовления: литьё по восковой модели, волочение, скань, пайки, эмалирования.\nЗолотая пектораль из Толстой Могилы считается непревзойдённым шедевром эллино-скифского искусства. Пектораль имеет форму полумесяца, её композиция состоит из трёх ярусов, разделённых двумя достаточно толстыми полыми трубками, оформленными в виде витого каната, украшенными псевдозернью. Ещё две такие же трубки обрамляют пектораль сверху и снизу. В верхнем ярусе представлено несколько отдельных сцен со скифами и домашними животными. В центре — двое полуобнаженных мужчин держат в руках растянутую шкуру животного, похожую на овечью. Слева и справа изображены лошади с жеребятами и коровы с телятами, за ними находятся фигуры скифских слуг, один из которых доит овцу, а другой — корову, держа в руках соответственно лепной горшок и небольшую амфору. В среднем ярусе представлены флористические мотивы — среди побегов растений и цветов находятся фигурки птиц. В нижнем ярусе изображены анималистические сцены охоты и терзания фантастических грифонов и реальных диких зверей.\nВерхний и нижний фризы пекторали кружевные, фигурки людей и животных на них выполнены в технике литья по утерянной восковой модели. Это почти полностью объёмные скульптурки, плоские только с внутренней стороны. Средний фриз расположен на фоне тонкой золотой имеющей вид полумесяца пластины, припаянной к двум средним полым трубкам. Объёмные фигурки птиц прикреплены с помощью штифтов среди цветов, лепестки которых покрыты цветной эмалью.\nКонцы трубок в верхней части пекторали соединены плоскими трапециевидными обоймами с тремя орнаментальными лентами (похожие на лотос цветы и многолучевые пальметты, овы и узкая витая косичка). К ним с помощью штифтов прикреплены наконечники-застежки в виде львиных голов и коротких лент сложного плетения, с двух сторон вставленных в две прямоугольные обоймы. Верхние из них украшены цветами лотоса с многолучевыми пальметтами, нижние — лентой из цветов. К львиным пастям припаяно по одному кольцу[1][2].\nЕсть несколько версий-интерпретаций изображаемых мотивов. По некоторым — на пекторали изображены бытовые сцены из жизни скифов. По другим — скифская легенда о Золотом руне и двух братьях, отправившихся на его поиски.\nКопия пекторали используется как театральная премия «Киевская пектораль». Копия также установлена в Донецке в Театральном сквере как часть скифской композиции.\nСодержание\n1 Галерея\n2 Примечания\n3 Литература\n4 Ссылки\nГалерея[править | править код]\nПектораль на марке Украины, серия «Золото скіфів», 1999 г.\nЮбилейная монета Украины\nСкифская композиция в Донецке\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ Русяєва М. В. Елліно-скіфське мистецтво IV ст. до н. е. (Археологічні пам’ятки торевтики з зображення скіфів) / Автореф. дис. … Канд. мистецтвознавства. — К., 1998. — 18 с.\n↑ Русяєва М. В. Античний світ Північного Причорномор’я. Образотворче та вжиткове мистецтво / / Історія українського мистецтва: У 5 т. / Гол. ред. видання Г. Скріпнік. — К.: АДЕФ-Україна, 2008. — Т. 1: Мистецтво первісної доби та стародавнього світу. — С. 520—524. — ISBN 978-966-02-4914-1\nЛитература[править | править код]\nБрашинский И. Б. В поисках скифских сокровищ . Ленинград. Издательство «Наука»: 1979. 144 с.\nКравченко С. Скифское золото // Наука и жизнь. 1971, № 9. — С. 10-12.\nНиколай Славинский. Пектораль // Вече, № 3, 2006\nИлона Волынская и Кирилл Кащеев «Большая книга приключений для храбрых и любопытных» Москва. Издательство «Эксмо» 2016. 349 стр.\nВадим Михайлин «Тропа звериных слов» Москва, Издательство НЛО: 2005. — 528 с.\nСсылки[править | править код]\nСкифское золото «Золотой кладовой Украины»\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Пектораль_из_кургана_Толстая_Могила&oldid=114822438\nКатегории:\nСкифское искусство\nИстория Днепропетровской области\nИзделия из золота\nИсторические драгоценности\nОжерелья\nОткрытия 1971 года\nЭкспонаты музея исторических драгоценностей Украины\nСкрытая категория:\nСтраницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nВ других проектах\nВикисклад\nНа других языках\nБеларуская\nБеларуская (тарашкевіца)\nEnglish\nУкраїнська\nПравить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 10 июня 2021 в 14:05.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования.","warc_headers":{"content-length":"10629","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:15:38Z","warc-block-digest":"sha1:HKP3LW4WOR5AGUHSXLUCJJX4PYSCG6V2","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:85c2b595-db74-4757-8a4c-c548565038be>","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0","content-type":"text/plain","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:9a2d1440-c41f-4828-b0ab-9c7667ede2bc>","warc-identified-content-language":"rus,ukr"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.8399219},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9862995},{"label":"ru","prob":0.994595},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9979319},{"label":"ru","prob":0.998044},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99696386},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99609286},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99598444},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99780643},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986684},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8026},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9407181},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9582055},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.986201},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9627124},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91622376},{"label":"uk","prob":0.99820375},{"label":"uk","prob":0.9980191},{"label":"ru","prob":0.832259},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8500902},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.86689067},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9695426},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.94676226},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9225242},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.95505524},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9416517},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9992957},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9394119},{"label":"ru","prob":0.88501656},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9991009},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9733396},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8547894},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9941388},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99323565},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98929805},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},null,{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000112},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9886211},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95933545},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996007},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9912934},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9997866},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99993795},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97265697},{"label":"uk","prob":0.961486},{"label":"ru","prob":0.84560204},{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000242},{"label":"ru","prob":0.999362},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92876965},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9151989},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98965615},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9989869},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9244532},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99682844},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.98425925},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9928283},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9320668},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97981536},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9201758},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93145066},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99568003},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993996},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987871},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9999529},{"label":"ru","prob":0.829746},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9791933},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96154326},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9753464},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943392},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99583626},{"label":"ru","prob":0.995088},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99753356},{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000385},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9902967},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99323994},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996947},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9752074}]}}
{"content":"'''Дже́ймс Монро́''' ({{lang-en|James Monroe}}, [[28 апреля]] [[1758 год]]а, Вашингтон-Пэриш, штат [[Виргиния]], — [[4 июля]] [[1831 год]]а, [[Нью—ЙоркНью-Йорк]]) — американский политический и государственный деятель, пятый [[президент США]] ([[1817]]—[[1825]]), один из организаторов [[Луизианская покупка|Луизианской покупки]] и разработчик внешнеполитической концепции, получившей название [[доктрина Монро]].","warc_headers":{"warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:885cfc36-39f1-46b8-ab7d-71f792932275>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9/44814800","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:25e24a59-e083-496e-90af-95ba996d5876>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:QMG3QFZK6566BGHVIFIQZWZHNTPMGAVS","warc-identified-content-language":"rus","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:49:18Z","content-length":"680","content-type":"text/plain"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.9783471},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9783471}]}}
{"content":"Леонардо Фавио одарён разносторонне. Ещё в детстве он научился играть на гитаре. Его исполнение романтических баллад под собственный аккомпанемент имело успех сначала в кругу друзей. Постепенно он стал выступать и на больших сценах. Успех его популярности как певца достиг пика в конце 1960-х — 1970-х годах. Песни его сочинения переведены на 14 языков. На протяжении карьеры он выпустил не менее 20 сольных альбомов.\nНа протяжении всей жизни придерживается взглядов идеологии [[перонизм]]а<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.temakel.com/entrevistafavio.htm|title=Интервью с Леонардо Фавио|author=Стивен Лелардо|date=|work=|publisher=temakel.com|accessdate=2011-10-17|lang=es|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6AKqpwziE|archivedate=2012-08-31}}</ref>. Он присоединился к перонистам совсем в молодом возрасте и сотрудничал с ними на протяжении первых двух сроков президентства полковника [[Перон, Хуан Доминго|Перона]]. Это повлекло в 1976 году, после развязанной военными лидерами страны [[Грязная война (Аргентина)|грязной войны]] с инакомыслящими, вынужденную эмиграцию Леонардо Фавио, в которой он пробыл до 1987 года. Отличное знание темы перонизма позволило режиссёру снять в 1996—1999 годах шестичасовой документальный фильм «Перон, симфония чувств».\nВ 2008 году Леонардо Фавио снял новую версию фильма «Романс о Анисето и Франциске» — «Анисето» ({{lang-es|Aniceto}}).\n{{ВФильме|1966|[[Романс о Анисето и Франциске]]|El romance del Aniceto y la Francisca|режиссёр, автор сценария}}","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:16:36Z","content-type":"text/plain","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:abef737c-e1a6-4e4f-aa9a-c670944080cc>","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9/49617378","warc-identified-content-language":"rus,srp","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:3a74aaea-cef0-4f41-a565-7e43194a1a0a>","content-length":"2450","warc-block-digest":"sha1:KKL75LO6LW3RTKLS4Y3ZBQUG4K6O6WV7","warc-type":"conversion"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.91641164},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.99697936},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97286165},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9898547},null]}}
{"content":"Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 3 июля 2021; проверки требует 1 правка.\nТекущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 3 июля 2021; проверки требует 1 правка.\nПерейти к навигации Перейти к поиску\nЭта статья — о римской провинции. О реке в России см. Норик (река).\nИсторическое государство\nНорик\nМедиафайлы на Викискладе\nРимская провинция Норик (выделена жёлтым цветом).\nНо́рик (лат. Noricum) — царство племени таврисков (IV—I века до н. э.), а затем римская провинция между верхним течением Дравы и Дунаем (с конца I века до н. э. — до 420 года н. э.).\nСодержание\n1 История\n1.1 Доримский период\n1.2 Правители Норика (ок. 370 — 16 до н. э.)\n1.3 Римская провинция (16 до н. э. — 476 н. э.)\n1.4 Во времена Великого переселения народов\n2 Упоминания Норика в славянских источниках\n3 Известные люди\n4 См. также\n5 Примечания\n6 Литература\nИстория[править | править код]\nДоримский период[править | править код]\nСогласно латинским источникам[источник не указан 2796 дней] в IV веке до н. э. иллирийское племя[источник не указан 2794 дня] нориков объединило под своей властью несколько кельтских, иллирийских племён и племя венетов, образовав собственное государство в северо-восточных Альпах. Столицей царства была Норея.\nПервые упоминания о таврисках Норика находим у Полибия во «Всеобщей истории»:\nЗолотые россыпи в Норике. …Еще в его время, говорит Полибий, в земле таврисков и нориков, вблизи Аквилеи, открыты столь богатые золотые россыпи, что достаточно было углубиться фута на два от поверхности земли, чтобы тотчас напасть на золото; впрочем золотоносная мина имела не больше пятнадцати футов. Некоторая часть золота находима там в чистом виде, в кусочках величиной с полевой или волчий боб, которые на огне теряют только восьмую долю объёма; другая часть требует более продолжительного плавления, но и она очень прибыльна. Одно время италийцы в течение двух месяцев работали в россыпях вместе с варварами, и золото немедленно по всей Италии упало в цене на одну треть. Когда тавриски это заметили, то прогнали товарищей и вели торговлю одни.\n— Полибий «Всеобщая история»[1]\nРимляне начали проникать в эту местность ещё во II веке до н. э. из основанной в 181 до н. э. колонии Аквилея. Особенно их привлекали залежи железной руды в Норее (Noreia), от имени которой, вероятно, и происходит римское название всей области.\nВ 113 до н. э. кимвры разбили на территории Норика армию консула Гнея Папирия Карбона.\nВ гражданской войне 49—45 годов до н. э. тавриски выступили на стороне Помпея.\nВ Норике сформировалось своеобразное рабовладельческое общество. Уровень развития античного Норика был достаточно высок. Здесь употреблялась своя оригинальная письменность и даже чеканилась собственная золотая монета. Языки венетов и иллирийцев были относительно близки друг другу, поэтому в Норике использовалось венетское и иллирийское алфавитное письмо[источник не указан 3131 день]. Известно лишь два божества нориков — Марс Латобий, именовавшийся «великим богом», «царём туата», и богиня Норейя, «великая мать народа».\nНа основании нескольких нерасшифрованных надписей предполагается существование норикского языка.\nПравители Норика (ок. 370 — 16 до н. э.)[править | править код]\nок. 370 — 45 до н. э. кельтский племенной союз таврисков (стол. Виндобона (н. Вена))[2].\nЭккео (царь ок. 200 до н. э.)\nБоро.\nТинео.\nАтта.\nАндамати.\nЭкритусир (ок. 60 до н. э.).\nВоккио (ок. 60 — 45 до н. э.).\n45 до н. э. — 420 год — римская провинция Норик.\nСуществование нижеследующих правителей сомнительно:\nСвиекка\nСонге\nНемет\nЭксингома\nГезаторикс\nРимская провинция (16 до н. э. — 476 н. э.)[править | править код]\nВ 16 до н. э. с таврисками воевал проконсул Иллирика Публий Силий Нерва[en], а затем в 15 до н.э. в течение одной летней кампании область была завоевана Тиберием и Друзом и присоединена к Риму[3]. Она была преобразована в провинцию Норик.\nВ последующие три столетия Норик подвергся сильной романизации, чему способствовала мирная обстановка в этой провинции, не испытывавшей до конца IV в. крупных варварских вторжений, за исключением периода Маркоманских войн. В провинции долгое время не было значительных римских войск, её военные силы ограничивались несколькими алами и когортами, набранными из местного населения. Когда в 15 году н. э. в Карнунт был переведён из Эмоны XV Аполлониев легион, этот город был сразу же передан Паннонии. Кроме этого, в Норике базировалась флотилия речных судов для охраны Дуная. Её главной базой был Лавриак. Во время Маркоманских войн Марку Аврелию пришлось набрать в Италии два новых легиона, один из которых, II Италийский, после войны был оставлен в Лавриаке[4].\nПределы Норика в это время ограничивались на севере Дунаем отделяющим его от Германии, на западе рекой Инн — от Рэтии, на юге Карнийскими Альпами и Караванками — от земли карнов, на востоке Цетийскими горами (Mons Cetius, ныне — Венский Лес[5]) и штирийской холмистой страной — от Паннонии[4]. Юго-восточная часть Норика прикрывала важную стратегическую дорогу Via Giulia Augusta, связанную с Янтарным путём, шедшую от Дуная через Лавриак — Вирун — Целея на Аквилею.\nВ правление Клавдия городские поселения провинции получили статус муниципиев. При Каракалле такой же статус получает Лавриак, основанный в конце II или начале III в. как лагерь для II Италийского легиона, вокруг которого вскоре образовалось поселение. Административным центром провинции был Вирун. Наиболее значительными городами Норика были Вирун (Virunum) , Теурина[источник не указан 2796 дней], Ювавум (современный Зальцбург), Ленция (современный Линц), Лавриак (Лорх), с большой императорской оружейной фабрикой, Петовиум (современный Птуй) и Овилава (Вельс). Из менее крупных городов вдоль дороги Via Giulia Augusta находились: Виндобона (современная Вена), Boiodurum, Ioviacum, Arelape, Namare, Bedaium.\nКроме добывания металлов жители занимались скотоводством и добыванием соли из озёр.\nСолдаты из Норика, служившие во II в. в паннонских когортах называют себя сисцианами, варианами и латобиками (от божества Марс Латобий)[6].\nВо время реформ Диоклетиана провинция была разделена на две — Норик Прибрежный (между Венским лесом и рекой Инн) и Норик Внутренний. Центрами гражданской администрации стали, соответственно, Овилава и Вирун. Был создан I Норикский легион моряков, задачей которого была оборона дунайских переправ. Он размещался в местечке Ad pontem Ises на реке Ибс. Резиденция главнокомандующего, носившего титул dux Noricum, находилась в Лавриаке.\nВалентиниан I (364—375) усилил систему укреплений на Дунае, в том числе в Норике, что позволило отразить нашествие квадов в 374—375. Однако общее положение на границах продолжало ухудшаться: проникшие в IV в. в соседнюю Рецию алеманны к концу столетия вышли на рубежи реки Инн, то есть к самой границе Норика, а в 395 квады, маркоманны и вандалы, разрушив Карнунт и Виндобону (Vindobona), подошли к восточным границам Норика, хотя в 396 Стилихону удалось восстановить границу на Дунае.\nВо времена Великого переселения народов[править | править код]\nОднако, хотя провинция и была более или менее защищена с севера, падение соседнего паннонского лимеса, прорванного на рубеже IV—V веков квадами, аланами и вандалами, открыло дорогу в Норик с востока, где он был практически беззащитен. В 401 году вандалы вторглись в Прибрежный Норик, разрушив несколько городов, в том числе Лавриак, но затем были вытеснены Стилихоном. Немного позднее вестготы Алариха, признанного союзником Рима, получили от Стилихона земли в Норике и Иллирии для поселения. После убийства Стилихона в 408 году Норик был временно захвачен Аларихом, однако уже в 409 году римский военачальник Генерид провёл реорганизацию западноиллирийского диоцеза, куда частично входил и Норик, и вновь подчинил его Риму. Из-за постоянной варварской угрозы административные центры перемещаются в начале века в более укреплённые города: так, центром Прибрежного Норика становится Лавриак, а Средиземноморского, вероятно, Тибурния.\nВ 430/31 году жители Норика подняли восстание, подавленное в следующем году Аэцием.\nВ середине V века усилилось давление гуннов на дунайские провинции. В 451 году Аттила, двигаясь в Галлию, прошёл через Прибрежный Норик, а в 452 году, во время похода в Италию — через Внутренний. После смерти Аттилы и разгрома гуннов коалицией германских племён, римляне заключили договоры с победителями и в 456 году смогли ненадолго восстановить контроль над частью Норика. Территория Прибрежного Норика попала под влияние племени ругов, осевших в то время на среднем Дунае в районе Нижней Австрии. Около 467 года остготы, обосновавшиеся в Паннонии, проникли во Внутренний Норик, откуда ушли в 472 году, по пути осадив Тибурнию, столицу остававшейся под властью римлян части Норика. Кроме того, Внутренний Норик неоднократно становился жертвой набегов алеманнов из соседней Реции.\nОтносительный мир между римлянами и германцами сохранялся до 476 года. Когда захвативший власть в Италии Одоакр прекратил выплачивать жалование солдатам норикского лимеса римская пограничная оборона рухнула окончательно и руги овладели Прибрежным Нориком, подчинив себе местное римское население.\nОдоакр, стремившийся обезопасить своё государство от ругов, которых император Зенон подстрекал к нападению на Италию, в 487 году совершил поход в Норик и в конце того года разгромил ругов в крупном сражении на Дунае. Король ругов Фелетей был взят в плен и позднее казнён. Его сын Фридерих с остатками племени бежал к остготам, чтобы впоследствии принять участие в завоевании Италии их королём Теодорихом. Второй поход войск Одоакра в 488 году закончился эвакуацией романизированного населения Норика в Италию, так как к границам бывшей провинции уже подступали остготы.\nВ конце V века большая часть страны принадлежала остготам; северо-западная часть, дольше всего сохранявшая название Норика, была занята байоварами (баварами). В южном Норике в конце VI века поселились славяне-карантаны, давшие название Каринтии; северо-восток до начала IX века был под властью аваров.\nУпоминания Норика в славянских источниках[править | править код]\nВ Повести временных лет (начало XII века) в переводе упомянуты некие «норики» как первые славяне:\n«...По разделении народов взяли сыновья Сима восточные страны, а сыновья Хама – южные страны, Иафетовы же взяли запад и северные страны. От этих же 70 и 2 язык произошел и народ славянский, от племени Иафета – так называемые норики, которые и есть славяне».\nВ оригинале Лаврентьевской летописи :«...от племени Афето\nва, нарци, еже суть словене »\nИзвестные люди[править | править код]\nКомандующим армией в провинции (до 304 года) был римский военачальник, святой мученик Флориан.\nСм. также[править | править код]\nКимврская война\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ Полибий «Всеобщая история»\n↑ Древний Восток и античность. // Правители Мира. Хронологическо-генеалогические таблицы по всемирной истории в 4 тт. / Автор-составитель В. В. Эрлихман. — Т. Глава 1. 10.5. Норик.\n↑ Strabo, Geog. 4.6.9.\n↑ 1 2 Норик // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1897. — Т. XXI. — С. 366—367.\n↑ Cetius mons // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart: Metzler, 1899. — Bd. III,2.\n↑ Империя в «Золотой век» Антонинов\nЛитература[править | править код]\nНорик // Реальный словарь классических древностей / авт.-сост. Ф. Любкер ; Под редакцией членов Общества классической филологии и педагогики Ф. Гельбке, Л. Георгиевского, Ф. Зелинского, В. Канского, М. Куторги и П. Никитина. — СПб., 1885.\nНорик — статья из Большой советской энциклопедии.\nНорик // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907.\nИз стихов Альцима Экдиция Авита. Публикация по изданию: Древние славяне в отрывках греко-римских и византийских писателей по VII в. н. э. // Вестник древней истории. 1941. № 1\nМартин Бракарский / С. А. Иванов: вступление, текст, перевод, комментарий, Е. Ч. Скржинская: комментарий // Свод древнейших письменных известий о славянах: в 2-х томах / Сост. и ред. Л. А. Гиндин, С. А. Иванов, Г. Г. Литаврин. — М.: Восточная литература РАН, 1994. — Т. 1 (I—VI вв.).\nТатищев В. Н. История российская… Часть первая. Глава 14: Сказание Плиния Секунда Старшего.\nКузьмин А. Г. Из предыстории народов Европы\nСловари и энциклопедии\nБольшая каталанская\nБрокгауза и Ефрона\nМалый Брокгауза и Ефрона\nНовый\nРеальный словарь классических древностей\nНормативный контроль\nGND: 4042608-7\nLCCN: n82032234\nVIAF: 126687778\nWorldCat VIAF: 126687778\nПровинции Римской империи в 117 году\nАзия\nАквитания\nКоттские Альпы\nПеннинские Альпы\nПриморские Альпы\nКаменистая Аравия\nАрмения\nАссирия\nАфрика\nАхея\nБелгика\nБетика\nБритания\nВерхняя Мёзия\nВифиния и Понт\nГалатия\nЛугдунская Галлия\nНарбонская Галлия\nНижняя Германия\nВерхняя Германия\nДакия\nДалмация\nЕгипет\nТарраконская Испания\nИталия\nИудея\nКаппадокия\nКиликия\nКипр\nКорсика и Сардиния\nКрит и Киренаика\nЛикия и Памфилия\nЛузитания\nМавретания Тингитанская\nМавретания Цезарейская\nМакедония\nМесопотамия\nНижняя Мёзия\nНорик\nВерхняя Паннония\nНижняя Паннония\nРеция\nСирия\nСицилия\nФракия\nЭпир\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Норик&oldid=116659477\nКатегории:\nПровинции Римской империи\nНорик\nСкрытые категории:\nВикипедия:Нет источников с января 2014\nВикипедия:Статьи без источников (страна: Древний Рим)\nВикипедия:Статьи без источников (тип: римская провинция)\nВикипедия:Статьи без источников (тип: владение)\nВикипедия:Статьи с утверждениями без источников более 14 дней\nВикипедия:Нет источников с февраля 2013\nСтатьи с ссылкой на БСЭ, без указания издания\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nТекущая версия\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nВ других проектах\nВикисклад\nНа других языках\nAfrikaans\nአማርኛ\nالعربية\nBoarisch\nБеларуская\nБългарски\nBrezhoneg\nCatalà\nČeština\nCymraeg\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nEesti\nEuskara\nSuomi\nFrançais\nGalego\n𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺\nעברית\nHrvatski\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nInterlingua\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n日本語\nҚазақша\n한국어\nLatina\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nOccitan\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nSlovenščina\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\n中文\nПравить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 15 сентября 2021 в 05:33.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. 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{"content":"Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 8 августа 2015; проверки требуют 65 правок.\nТекущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 8 августа 2015; проверки требуют 65 правок.\nПерейти к навигации Перейти к поиску\nУ этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Сцепление.\nСцепле́ние — механизм, работа которого основана на действии силы трения скольжения (фрикционная муфта); предназначен для передачи крутящего момента, плавного переключения передач, гашения крутильных колебаний, кратковременного отсоединения трансмиссии от маховика двигателя.\nОбычно термин «сцепление» относится к компоненту трансмиссии транспортного средства, предназначенному для подключения или отключения соединения двигателя внутреннего сгорания с коробкой передач. Изобретение сцепления приписывают Карлу Бенцу.\nСцепление служит для временного разобщения коленчатого вала двигателя с силовой передачей автомобиля, что необходимо при переключении шестерён в коробке передач и при торможении автомобиля вплоть до полной его остановки. Кроме того, сцепление даёт возможность плавно (без рывков) трогаться с места.\nНа тракторах и на бронетехнике используется эквивалентный термин фрикцион.\nСцепление с диафрагменной пружиной в сборе\nСодержание\n1 Общие сведения\n2 Классификация\n3 Устройство и принцип действия автомобильного сцепления\n3.1 Однодисковое сцепление\n3.2 Сцепление с диафрагменной нажимной пружиной\n3.3 Двухдисковое сцепление\n3.3.1 Общее устройство двухдискового сцепления\n3.3.2 Не показаны на рисунке\n3.3.3 Принцип действия двухдискового сцепления\n3.4 Пневматический усилитель сцепления\n3.5 Коническое сцепление\n4 Сцепление, работающее в масляной ванне\n4.1 Устройство мотоциклетного сцепления\n4.2 Механизм выключения мотоциклетного сцепления\n5 Неисправности сцепления\n5.1 Неполное включение сцепления (пробуксовка)\n5.2 Неполное выключение сцепления (сцепление «ведёт»)\n5.3 Рывки при включении сцепления\n5.4 Неисправности, связанные с системой гидропривода или механического привода\n6 Некоторые особенности управления автомобилями со сцеплением и механической коробкой передач\n7 Другие виды сцепления\n8 Сцепление в автоматических коробках передач\n9 Примечания\n10 Ссылки\nОбщие сведения[править | править код]\nВедомый диск сцепления\nСуществует много различных типов сцепления, но большинство основано на одном или нескольких фрикционных дисках, плотно сжатых друг с другом или с маховиком пружинами. Фрикционный материал очень похож на используемый в тормозных колодках и раньше почти всегда содержал асбест, в последнее время используются безасбестовые материалы. Плавность включения и выключения передачи обеспечивается проскальзыванием постоянно вращающегося ведущего диска, присоединённого к коленчатому валу двигателя, относительно ведомого диска, соединённого через шлиц с коробкой передач.\nУсилие от педали сцепления передается на механизм механическим (рычажным или тросовым) или гидравлическим приводом.\nНажатие на педаль сцепления (выжимание, выключение) разводит диски сцепления, в итоге оставляя между ними свободное пространство, а отпускание педали (включение) приводит к плотному сжатию ведущего и ведомого дисков.\nПри включенном сцеплении крутящий момент передается от коленчатого вала на маховик, затем на кожух сцепления и через пластинчатые пружины на ведущий (нажимной) диск. От маховика и ведущего нажимного диска, благодаря силам трения, крутящий момент передается зажатому между ними ведомому диску, ступица которого имеет шлицевое соединение с ведущим валом коробки передач.\nДля выключения сцепления нажимают на педаль, которая через систему тяг и рычагов передает усилие на вилку, муфту, рычаги и пальцы отводят назад ведущий нажимной диск. При этом пружины сжимаются и освобождают ведомый диск, по обеим сторонам которого образуются зазоры, что прерывает передачу через него крутящего момента. В двухдисковом сцеплении для обеспечения необходимых зазоров между ведущими и ведомыми дисками в выключенном состоянии имеются отжимные пружины и регулировочный болт промежуточного диска. При плавном отпускании педали нажимные пружины возвращают все детали механизма выключения в исходное положение, ведомый диск прижимается к ведущему (нажимному) диску и маховику.\nЕсли при включении сцепления просто «бросить» педаль, ведомый диск с силой прижмётся к ведущему (маховику) и затормозит его до такой степени, что двигатель может остановиться (заглохнуть) — то есть, сцепление сработает подобно тормозному механизму. Поэтому педаль сцепления после момента начала зацепления дисков нужно отпускать плавно. Конкретная техника работы педалью зависит от конструкции привода сцепления.\nНа современных автомобилях используются два типа привода сцепления — гидравлический и механический тросовый.\nПри гидравлическом приводе сцепления величина полного хода педали сцепления остаётся постоянной (что обеспечивается наличием у педали сцепления возвратной пружины), но меняется величина её рабочего хода, компенсируя уменьшение толщины ведомого диска в результате износа — чем меньше толщина остающегося диска, тем, при том же самом полном ходе педали сцепления, большим оказывается её рабочий ход, и тем «выше» (ближе к концу обратного хода педали при её отпускании) срабатывает сцепление. Педаль сцепления с гидравлическим приводом можно отпускать достаточно резко вплоть до того момента, когда ведущий и ведомый диски начинают входить друг с другом в зацепление (что ощущается по слабому рывку автомобиля в момент начала трогания) — после этого начинается рабочий ход педали, в ходе которого её необходимо отпускать плавно. С новым ведомым диском сцепление срабатывает «внизу» и автомобиль начинает трогаться уже при небольшом отпускании педали; при сильно изношенном ведомом диске, напротив, диски не входят в зацепление вплоть до самого конца хода педали. У педали сцепления с гидравлическим приводом всегда имеется небольшой (обычно не более 10…15 мм на педали) свободный ход в самом начале нажатия педали, обусловленный наличием конструктивного зазора в 2…3 мм между шарнирно соединённым с педалью сцепления толкателем и приводимым им в движение поршнем главного цилиндра сцепления — это необходимо для того, чтобы обеспечить полное включение сцепления при отпускании педали и исключить его пробуксовку при движении автомобиля.\nУ педали сцепления с тросовым приводом полный ход увеличивается по мере износа ведомого диска (педаль сцепления приподнимается относительно пола), вместе с ним увеличивается и её рабочий ход. Педаль следует отпускать плавно с самого начала, так как сцепление срабатывает всегда «внизу». Свободный ход педали обеспечивается регулировкой длины троса и составляет обычно порядка 30…40 мм.\nВедомый диск сцепления состоит из собственно диска с пружинными пластинами, к которым приклёпаны или приклеены независимо друг от друга две фрикционные накладки. Такое крепление накладок обеспечивает их расхождение при выключенном сцеплении, при включении пружинные пластины постепенно сжимаются, обеспечивая плавное включение. Центральная часть диска сцепления — ступица — имеет шлицевое соединение и перемещается по первичному валу коробки передач. Ступица соединена с диском подвижно, через демпферные пружины и фрикционные шайбы гасителя крутильных колебаний (видны на снимке), служащие для выравнивания колебаний крутящего момента, неизбежно возникающих под влиянием переменных нагрузок и инерции массы при передаче его от двигателя к ведущим колёсам и обратно. При некоторых условиях эти колебания могут привести к поломке валов.\nКлассификация[править | править код]\nПо способу управления — сцепления с механическим, гидравлическим, электрическим или комбинированным приводом (например, гидромеханическим).\nПо виду трения — сухие (фрикционные накладки работают в воздушной среде) и мокрые (работающие в масляной ванне).\nПо режиму включения — постоянно замкнутые и непостоянно замкнутые.\nПо числу ведомых дисков — одно-, двух- и многодисковые.\nПо типу и расположению нажимных пружин — с расположением нескольких цилиндрических пружин по периферии нажимного диска и с центральной диафрагменной пружиной.\nПо числу потоков передач крутящего момента — одно и двухпоточные.\nУстройство и принцип действия автомобильного сцепления[править | править код]\nУстройство автомобильного однодискового сцепления\n1 — маховик\n2 — накладки из фрикционного материала (феродо)\n3 — ведомый диск сцепления\n4 — болты, скрепляющие ведущий диск с маховиком\n5 — вилка выключения сцепления\n6 — нажимная муфта\n7 — вал педали сцепления\n8 — педаль сцепления\n9 — ведущий (нажимной) диск\n10 — рычаг включения (или выжимной рычаг, на рисунке 3 шт)\n11 — выжимной (упорный) подшипник\n12 — ведущий (первичный) вал коробки передач\nОднодисковое сцепление[править | править код]\nПринцип действия:\nПри нажатии на педаль 8 вал 7 поворачивается, вначале выбирается зазор (свободный ход педали сцепления) между вилкой выключения сцепления 5 и нажимной муфтой 6. Затем муфта с выжимным подшипником 11 перемещается и выжимной подшипник нажимает на внутренние концы рычагов 10, которые отводят своими наружными концами нажимной диск 9 от ведомого диска 3. При этом нажимные пружины 4 сжимаются — сцепление выключено, и крутящий момент от двигателя к трансмиссии не передаётся. После отпускания педали муфта выключения сцепления с выжимным подшипником возвращаются в исходное положение под действием пружин. Под действием нажимных пружин нажимной диск 9 прижимается к маховику 1, при этом обжимая ведомый диск 3 — сцепление включено, крутящий момент передаётся от двигателя к коробке передач. Ведомый диск 3 имеет шлицы и перемещается по ответным шлицам первичного вала коробки передач 12. Плавную передачу крутящего момента при включении сцепления обеспечивают демпферные пружины, вмонтированные в ведомый диск.\nВсе детали сцепления закрыты кожухом (корзина сцепления), приворачиваемым к маховику болтами; оси выжимных рычагов через проушины крепятся к кожуху.\nСцепление мотоциклов с продольным расположением двигателя принципиальных отличий не имеет.\nВыжимной подшипник обычно представляет собой специальный упорный шарикоподшипник; на некоторых автомобилях применяются упорные подшипники скольжения (графитные), в этом случае применяется термин подпятник (автомобили «Запорожец»; Москвич-412, кроме поздних выпусков).\nСцепление с диафрагменной нажимной пружиной[править | править код]\nСцепление диафрагменного типа.\nA — включённое положение, B — выключенное положение\n1 — коленвал\n2 — маховик\n3 — ведомый диск сцепления\n4 — нажимной диск\n5 — диафрагменная пружина\n6 — первичный вал коробки передач\n7 — нажимная муфта и выжимной подшипник\n8 — кожух сцепления (корзина сцепления)\n9 — соединения\n10 — шпильки\n11 — упоры\nНа легковых автомобилях, как правило, применяется сцепление с диафрагменной нажимной пружиной, вместо большого числа рычагов включения и цилиндрических пружин. Пружина сцепления плоская или имеет форму усечёного конуса, в центральной её части отштампованы лепестки (около двух десятков), служащих одновременно выжимными рычагами. При нажатии на педаль вилка выключения сцепления перемещает нажимную муфту и выжимной подшипник 7, внутренняя кромка пружины передвигается вперёд, пружина прогибается и её наружная кромка отводит нажимной диск 4, сцепление выключается. При отпускании педали детали движутся в обратном порядке, диафрагменная пружина возвращается к форме усечённого конуса, сцепление включается. Сцепление с диафрагменной нажимной пружиной легче и дешевле сцепления с рычагами, требуется меньше регулировок при ремонте.\nДвухдисковое сцепление[править | править код]\nСхема устройства двухдискового сцепления\nНа тяжёлых грузовых автомобилях, тракторах, бронетехнике, на некоторых тяжёлых мотоциклах («Урал», «Днепр»), а также на некоторых спорткарах применяются двухдисковые сцепления.\nДвухдисковые механизмы устанавливаются для повышения срока службы сцепления, в связи с большой мощностью двигателей и необходимостью передавать увеличенные крутящие моменты.\nОбщее устройство двухдискового сцепления[править | править код]\nФрикционная поверхность маховика двигателя — синий цвет слева\nДва ведомых диска — коричневый цвет\nПромежуточный ведущий диск — голубой цвет\nНажимной ведущий диск — зелёный цвет\nНажимные пружины — серый цвет\nКожух — синий цвет справа\nНе показаны на рисунке[править | править код]\nВилки\nРычаги выключения сцепления\nВыжимной подшипник\nВилка выключения сцепления\nОтжимные пружины\nПринцип действия двухдискового сцепления[править | править код]\nВыжимной подшипник нажимает на выжимные рычаги, они оттягивают нажимной диск. Нажимной диск отходит от первого ведомого и отпускает отжимные пружины. Они отпускают промежуточный ведущий диск, а он отходит за счёт других отжимных пружин от второго фрикционного, настолько же, насколько нажимной отошёл от первого фрикционного. При обратном движении отжимные пружины способствуют равномерному прижатию промежуточного диска ко второму ведомому и нажимного — к первому ведомому.\nНажимные диски перемещаются по шпилькам, ввёрнутым в маховик, к ним же прикреплена корзина сцепления. На шпильки надеты отжимные пружины.\nПневматический усилитель сцепления[править | править код]\nТяжёлые грузовые автомобили, например МАЗ имеют привод сцепления с пневматическим усилителем — предназначен для уменьшения усилия, прилагаемого на педаль выключения сцепления.\nУстройство: педаль, тяга, золотник (клапан управления), шланги, пневмокамера, рычаги, тормозок, первичный вал с барабаном тормозка. Принцип действия: при отпущенной педали впускной клапан золотника закрыт, а выпускной открыт. При нажатии на педаль усилие через тягу и золотник передаётся на вилку выключения сцепления. В это время в золотнике открывается впускной клапан и закрывается выпускной — корпус золотника надвигается на выпускной клапан, выпускной клапан прижимается к впускному и закрывается, а впускной этим движением открывается. Воздух через впускной клапан поступает в пневмокамеру, она за счёт давления помогает нажать вилку выключения сцепления.\nКоническое сцепление[править | править код]\nСтарейший вид сцепления, широко использовалось на многих автомобилях начала XX века. Фрикционные поверхности имели коническую форму. Передавало больший момент при тех же габаритах по сравнению с однодисковым, было просто по устройству и в уходе. Однако тяжёлый диск такого сцепления обладал большой инерцией, и при переключении передач после выжима педали продолжал вращаться на холостом ходу, из-за чего включение передачи было затруднено или просто невозможно. Для торможения диска сцепления применялся специальный агрегат — тормоз сцепления, однако его использование было лишь половинчатым решением проблемы, как и замена одного конуса двумя менее массивными. Кроме того, сцепление было тяжёлым и громоздким. В результате в 1920-х годах от него отказались.\nТакже существовало сцепление с обратным конусом, работавшее на разжимание.\nСинхронизаторы коробки передач по сути представляют собой конические сцепления, работающие за счёт трения бронзы (или другого металла с высоким коэффициентом трения) по стали.\nСцепление, работающее в масляной ванне[править | править код]\nМотоциклетное многодисковое сцепление в разобранном виде:\nслева - барабаны, справа - диски сцепления\nДвигатель мотоцикла Иж Планета-5, показана крышка сцепления\nОдноцилиндровый карбюраторный двухтактный двигатель, установленный на мотоцикле «Pannonia» (Венгрия)\n1 — воздушный фильтр\n2 — карбюратор\n3 — цилиндр двигателя\n4 — головка цилиндра\n5 — выпускная труба\n6 — картер кривошипно-шатунного механизма\n7 — крышка механизма сцепления\n8 — картер коробки передач\nНа мотоциклах с поперечным расположением двигателя обычно применяется сцепление, работающее в масляной ванне.\nЭто вызвано тем, что мотоциклетные двигатели (как двухтактные, так и четырёхтактные) имеют общий картер для двигателя и коробки передач. Детали сцепления совмещены с моторной передачей и системой запуска двигателя, смазываются моторным маслом, которое должно обладать особыми свойствами.[1]\nТакже многодисковые сцепления в масляной ванне широко применялись на автомобилях начала XX века, но впоследствии вышли из употребления.\nФрикционы автоматической коробки передач являются по сути многодисковыми сцеплениями, работающими в масляной ванне.\nУстройство мотоциклетного сцепления[править | править код]\nНа заднем (левом) конце коленвала находится ведущая (малая) звёздочка, соединённая цепной передачей (передняя передача или моторная передача) с ведущим (наружным) барабаном сцепления. Ведущий (наружный) барабан сцепления свободно вращается на первичном валу коробки передач и является одновременно большой (ведомой) звёздочкой моторной цепной передачи; также на ведущем барабане находится храповик пускового устройства (педали кикстартера). Ведомый (внутренний) барабан сцепления установлен на том же первичном валу КПП подвижно на шлицах и закреплён гайкой. В барабанах находится пакет из дисков сцепления — ведомых и ведущих. Ведущие диски связаны с наружным барабаном с помощью выступов, входящих в пазы. Ведомые диски с зубцами на внутренней окружности и связаны этими зубцами с ведомым (внутренним) барабаном. Собирается пакет следующим образом: во внутренний барабан устанавливается опорный ведомый диск, за ним ведущий, потом снова ведомый… Последним ставится нажимной диск, который притягивается к ведомому барабану цилиндрическими пружинами. Фрикционные накладки наклеены на ведущие диски и сделаны из пробки или специальной пластмассы. Феродо работать в масляной среде не может, замасливание автомобильного сцепления является одной из его неисправностей, пробка или пластмасса, в свою очередь, не может работать в условиях сухого трения (моментально сгорит). Плавное включение сцепления происходит благодаря тому, что пары ведущих и ведомых дисков, разделённые слоем масла, одновременно не «схватываются».\nМеханизм выключения мотоциклетного сцепления[править | править код]\nПервичный вал коробки передач полый, через него проходит толкающий шток, передающий усилие посредством троса в гибкой оболочке от рычага на руле мотоцикла. Усилие от троса преобразуется червячным или рычажным механизмом. Шток заканчивается твердосплавным шариком (это и есть выжимной подшипник), далее усилие передаётся на грибок, отводящий нажимной диск, после чего пакет дисков сцепления разводится и крутящий момент не передаётся.\nНеисправности сцепления[править | править код]\nНеполное включение сцепления (пробуксовка)[править | править код]\nПоломка ведущего диска сцепления из-за нарушения температурного режима работы (перегрев).\nПробуксовка — при отпущенной не полностью педали сцепления (частично отпущенной педали сцепления) диски проскальзывают один относительно другого. От длительной пробуксовки диски значительно нагреваются, стальной ведомый диск может покоробиться, а чугунный маховик и нажимные диски могут покрыться трещинами. Фрикционные накладки изнашиваются и обгорают, в кабине появляется специфический неприятный запах.\nВодитель замечает пробуксовку вначале на высших передачах, несмотря на увеличение оборотов двигателя скорость автомобиля не увеличивается. Если не ремонтировать, процесс прогрессирует, в дальнейшем на первой передаче машина не может тронуться с места.\nОсновной причиной пробуксовки является малый свободный ход педали сцепления, обычно он составляет 15—25 мм от крайнего верхнего положения педали до положения, когда выжимной подшипник начинает нажимать на рычаги выключения или на диафрагменную пружину. Необходимо восстановить (подрегулировать) свободный ход педали сцепления.\nЕсли причина в ведомом диске, то его нужно демонтировать и осмотреть на предмет деформаций и механических дефектов.\nПри сильном износе фрикционных накладок подрегулировать свободный ход не удаётся, необходима замена накладок или ведомого диска.\nДругой причиной пробуксовки является замасливание накладок, а также ослабление нажимных пружин (возможно произошёл отпуск стали при перегреве сцепления).\nНеполное выключение сцепления (сцепление «ведёт»)[править | править код]\nНеполное выключение сцепления обнаруживается при включении передачи, когда автомобиль неподвижен, это сопровождается сильным «хрустом» шестерён и ведёт к износу коробки передач. Возможная причина — увеличенный рабочий ход педали сцепления.\nТакже это возможно при деформации выжимных рычагов; или выжимной подшипник заедает, не передвигается вместе с нажимной муфтой. Возможно, ведомый диск сцепления не передвигается по шлицам (загустела или загрязнилась консистентная смазка).\nПервичный вал коробки передач вставляется в шарикоподшипник, расположенный в углублении маховика; возможно «ведение» сцепления связано с неисправностью этого подшипника. В двухдисковом сцеплении данная проблема возникает при замасливании и последующем склеивании ведомых и нажимных дисков.\nРывки при включении сцепления[править | править код]\nЕсли, несмотря на плавный отпуск педали сцепления автомобиль трогается «рывками» с места, следует сделать предположение о разрушении фрикционных накладок, короблении ведомого диска или о поломке демпферных пружин, или об износе фрикционных шайб.\nТакже возможно заедание ведомого диска при передвижении по шлицам первичного вала коробки передач, а также заедание нажимной муфты или разрушение выжимного подшипника.\nНеисправности, связанные с системой гидропривода или механического привода[править | править код]\nПри попадании воздуха в гидравлический привод выключения сцепления возможно «проваливание» педали, и как следствие — неполное выключение сцепления. Необходимо удалить пузырьки воздуха с частью тормозной жидкости (прокачать сцепление), доливая свежую.[2]\nВ механизмах с тросовым приводом сцепление вообще не выключается, возможен обрыв троса.\nПедаль сцепления не возвращается в первоначальное положение, произошло отсоединение возвратной пружины.\nЕсли при выключении сцепления слышен сильный шум, создаваемый выжимным подшипником — это говорит о его износе.\nЕсли привод сцепления механический (рычажный или тросовый) — то по мере износа фрикционных накладок педаль сцепления будет постепенно подниматься, при гидравлическом приводе педаль не меняет своё положение, происходит снижение уровня тормозной жидкости в бачке.[2]\nНекоторые особенности управления автомобилями со сцеплением и механической коробкой передач[править | править код]\nСцепление следует выключать полностью, резко «в пол», включать плавно, в определённый момент водитель почувствует, что машина «потянула», следует зафиксировать педаль сцепления в моменте схватывания на некоторое время, немного увеличить обороты двигателя (или сделать это заранее) и продолжать плавно отпускать педаль сцепления.\nПри движении вторую и последующие передачи включают, отпуская сцепление более быстро, но без «бросания».\nПри манёврах (надо продвинуть машину на несколько сантиметров) сцепление полностью не отпускается, с пробуксовкой машина перемещается на малое расстояние, затем сцепление выключается (езда на точке схватывания).\nДанные навыки приходят и подсознательно закрепляются со временем, в процессе управления автомобилем.\nНельзя удерживать машину на подъёме за счёт пробуксовки сцепления, для этого существует стояночный тормоз.\nЗапуск двигателя производится в нейтральном положении коробки передач, однако для полной уверенности следует при запуске выключать сцепление, затем плавно его включать. Это дополнительная гарантия того, что автомобиль случайно не придет в движение. На многих современных автомобилях пуск двигателя возможен только при выжатом сцеплении, для чего контролируется положение педали, и эта информация передаётся в электронный блок управления двигателем.\nВ суровых зимних условиях моторное масло в двигателе и трансмиссионное масло в коробке передач настолько сильно загустевают, что стартер не может провернуть коленчатый вал вместе с первичным валом коробки, находящейся на «нейтрали». В таком случае двигатель запускают с выключенным сцеплением, а после небольшого прогрева, когда двигатель начнёт работать более-менее устойчиво, плавно пытаются включить сцепление. Если двигатель при этом попытается «заглохнуть» — продолжают прогрев до устойчивой работы.\nНедопустима езда с прижатой педалью сцепления, это вызывает пробуксовку, перегрев и повышенный износ сцепления. Левая нога должна находиться рядом с педалью.\nТем не менее, при спортивном и экстремальном вождении допускается езда с пробуксовкой сцепления. Например, автомобиль на первой передаче движется по грязи или по глубокому снегу. Сопротивление движению настолько велико, что двигатель снижает обороты (и крутящий момент) вплоть до полной остановки. Водитель может кратковременно поднять обороты, вызвав пробуксовку сцепления.\nПри ремонте сцепления (сборка корзины) трудности возникают при центрировании ведомого диска, для облегчения данной задачи центрирование проводится на старом первичном валу коробки передач или вытачивается приспособление — ремонтный фальшвал.\nДругие виды сцепления[править | править код]\nВедущий диск центробежного сцепления бензопилы\n1 — фрикционная накладка с грузом\n2 — направляющие\n3 — стяжные пружины\nДля высоких нагрузок, таких как грузовые и спортивные автомобили, применяется также керамическое сцепление с высоким коэффициентом трения, однако оно «схватывает» резко, поэтому непригодно для использования в стандартных автомобилях.\nНа некоторых модификациях автомобилей «Запорожец» с ручным управлением (для людей с инвалидностью) устанавливалось порошковое электромагнитное сцепление. Между ведущим и ведомым дисками находился ферромагнитный порошок, не мешающий раздельному вращению валов. После подачи электрического тока в обмотку электромагнита порошок «затвердевал» и передавал крутящий момент.\nНа бензопилах и бензокосаx применяется центробежное сцепление. На коленвале двигателя находится ведущий диск сцепления, фрикционные накладки, размещённые по дуге окружности, притягиваются к центру диска пружинами. При повышении оборотов двигателя под действием центробежной силы фрикционные накладки прижимаются к ведомому барабану и пильная цепь (или косильная головка) приходит в движение. Если цепь бензопилы «заедает» в древесине — обороты снижаются, накладки притягиваются в первоначальное положение, двигатель при этом не глохнет, а цепь останавливается, что необходимо для безопасного труда.\nНа мотокультиваторах, например «Крот», роль сцепления выполняет клиновой ремень, при натяжении ремня происходит передача крутящего момента от двигателя к почвенным фрезам.\nСцепление в автоматических коробках передач[править | править код]\nВ классическом виде сцепление (предназначенное для разобщения двигателя и трансмиссии) в гидромеханических и вариаторных автоматических трансмиссиях отсутствует, используется оно только в роботизированных коробках передач. Тем не менее, фрикционные муфты в гидромеханических КПП применяются повсеместно, но с совершенно иными целями (для плавного переключения передач без прерывания потока мощности).\nВ роботизированных коробках передач выжимают сцепление и переключают передачи электроприводы, при этом, для большей плавности переключения существуют роботизированные коробки передач с двумя сцеплениями, работающими по очереди (одно сцепление в работе, другое, со следующей передачей, наготове).\nВ кулачковых коробках, используемых на спортивных автомобилях, педаль сцепления используется только при старте, далее переключение передач происходит без использования педали.\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ Как правило, применяется именно моторное, а не трансмиссионное масло.\n↑ 1 2 В гидравлическом приводе сцепления применяется тормозная жидкость, как и в гидроприводе тормозов.\nСсылки[править | править код]\nСцепление:\nМедиафайлы на Викискладе\nЗамена сцепления ВАЗ\nСцепление автомобилей: устройство, типы, предъявляемые требования\nМуфта сцепления в разрезе\nЗамена сборки сцепления на примере Honda, подробнейший отчет\nYouTube: Износ муфты сцепления\nYouTube: Муфта сцепления при сборке\nНеисправности механизма сцепления\nО сцеплении\nЗамена сцепления\nПрименяемость сцеплений на отечественную коммерческую технику\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сцепление_(механика)&oldid=114271087\nКатегории:\nТрансмиссия\nУстройство автомобиля\nСкрытая категория:\nВикипедия:Ссылка на Викисклад непосредственно в статье\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nТекущая версия\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nВ других проектах\nВикисклад\nНа других языках\nAfrikaans\nالعربية\nAsturianu\nAzərbaycanca\nБългарски\nCatalà\nČeština\nDansk\nDeutsch\nΕλληνικά\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nGaeilge\n客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî\nעברית\nहिन्दी\nHrvatski\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nBahasa Indonesia\nIdo\nItaliano\n日本語\nҚазақша\nಕನ್ನಡ\n한국어\nമലയാളം\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nOccitan\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nSlovenčina\nSlovenščina\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nதமிழ்\nไทย\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\nTiếng Việt\n中文\nBân-lâm-gú\n粵語\nПравить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 18 мая 2021 в 08:29.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. 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использования.","warc_headers":{"content-length":"54237","warc-type":"conversion","content-type":"text/plain","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:22:16Z","warc-block-digest":"sha1:5GLN3C6KCRZ6RYBTDYV3DZMT3IXYIR2H","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:c580d81c-4b09-4d8b-90da-a1b1efbfebe6>","warc-identified-content-language":"rus","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:bf64d0ba-12e0-4d06-84cf-b60caa4d3090>","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_(%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.9756865},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993791},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993791},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98775697},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99994266},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9936342},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99643576},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99841803},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98966867},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9976622},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986684},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9461877},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96286106},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9862354},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98463243},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9902997},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9694983},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9890734},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92204505},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9877792},{"label":"ru","prob":0.979755},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96365577},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99027616},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95465},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9706824},{"label":"ru","prob":0.87915266},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9888583},{"label":"ru","prob":0.994968},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8905783},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97457176},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99048233},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99919903},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98878634},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93273926},{"label":"ru","prob":0.94224334},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8844801},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943082},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986335},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9892892},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9875677},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9975666},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9984017},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9977058},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9953208},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9984838},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99900085},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99632},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9126583},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9843887},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9964339},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99239624},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98610246},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9940775},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9936479},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9770638},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98948395},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9710575},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9804647},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99842846},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90800136},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9497152},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91512954},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9539236},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9992384},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99334675},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99622494},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99950695},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9713777},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98765075},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99876654},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9949148},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9978982},{"label":"ru","prob":0.998014},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98005676},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99680054},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9970233},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8259011},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9804647},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9319421},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9340036},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99748534},{"label":"ru","prob":0.994363},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9897584},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9869647},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9842025},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99813527},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9770653},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9860241},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9944791},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9990191},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98257256},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99785143},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99318016},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99942124},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99998695},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9989813},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9870468},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9464061},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.91136265},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99635226},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91012746},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8853799},{"label":"ru","prob":0.983904},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9976731},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9976947},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9685503},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98059964},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987765},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9746524},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9981021},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99938583},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9981225},{"label":"ru","prob":0.992275},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9864273},{"label":"ru","prob":0.897608},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9817725},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9962089},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99809116},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9484572},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8636124},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9969237},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8716716},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91122085},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90044385},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993093},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99931836},{"label":"ru","prob":0.995896},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9983548},{"label":"ru","prob":0.928932},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9983018},{"label":"ru","prob":0.961741},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99879336},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8322042},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9833525},{"label"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{"content":"Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 29 сентября 2018; проверки требуют 65 правок.\nТекущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 29 сентября 2018; проверки требуют 65 правок.\nПерейти к навигации Перейти к поиску\nСоветизация Грузии\nОсновной конфликт: Гражданская война в России (Иностранная военная интервенция в России)\nДата\n16 февраля — 17 марта 1921\nМесто\nГрузинская Демократическая Республика\nПричина\nСтремление большевиков и кемалистской Турции установить свой контроль над Грузией\nИтог\nПобеда большевиков и кемалистской Турции:\nМосковский договор,\nКарсский договор\nИзменения\nПрисоединение к Турции Артвинского, Ардаганского и частично Батумского округов;\nУпразднение Грузинской Демократической Республики и провозглашение Социалистической Советской Республики Грузия (ССРГ)\nПротивники\nГрузия\nФранция (поддержка корабельной артиллерией 28 февраля)\nРСФСР\nССР Грузия\nТурецкое национальное движение (с 23 февраля)\nКомандующие\nН. Н. Жордания\nГ. Лордкипанидзе\nК. Л. Геловани\nГ. И. Квинитадзе\nГ. И. Мазниашвили\nК. Чолокашвили\nА. И. Геккер\nМ. Д. Великанов\nИ. В. Сталин\nГ. К. Орджоникидзе\nФ. И. Махарадзе\nКязым Карабекир-паша\nСилы сторон\n• ВС Грузии\n• Народная гвардия Грузии[en]\n• Ополчение\n• ВМС\nИтого: ок. 35 тыс. чел.\n• РККА\n·• ок. 50 тыс. чел.\n• КП(б)Г\n·• ок. 9 тыс. чел.\n• ВС Турции\n·• ок. 20 тыс. чел.\nПотери\nок. 3,2 тыс. чел. убитых и пленных,\nок. 3-5 тыс. чел. погибших мирных жителей[1]\nок. 5,5 тыс. чел. убитых,\nок. 2,5 тыс. чел. пленных[1]\n30 убитых,\n46 пропавших без вести,\n26 раненных[2]\nВойна за независимость Турции\nСтамбул • Малая Азия • Армения • Грузия • Киликия и Месопотамия\nИстория Грузии\nДоисторическая Грузия\nШулавери-шомутепинская культура\nКуро-араксская культура\nТриалетская культура\nКолхидская культура\nДревняя история\nДиаоха\nКолхида\nМушки (Мосхи)\nСаспиры\nПравление Ахеменидов (XIII и XIX сатрапии)\nАриан-Картли\nИберия\nГрузия в римскую эпоху\nЛазика\nАбазгия\nПоходы помпея в Грузии\nСасанидская иберия\nКрещение Иберии (326)\nКартлийские Питиахши\nМихраниды\nСредние века\nРаннее средневековье\nИберийские войны\nЛазская война\nКартлийское эрисмтаварство\nАрабское правление в Грузии\nТбилисский эмират\nКахети-Эрети\nХосроиды\nДжавахети-Кларджети\nГуарамиды\nАбхазское царство\nАбхазская династия\nТао-Кларджети\nБагратиды\nВысокое средневековье\nИвирия (фема)\nГрузинское царство\nЗолотой век Грузии\nКахети-Эретинское царство\nВизантийско-грузинская и Грузино-сельджукские войны\nМонгольское завоевание Грузии\nПозднее средневековье\nВторжения Тамерлана в Грузию\nТуркменские вторжения в Грузию\nРаспад единого царства (1463—1490)\nНовое время\nРанний современный период\nСамцхе-Саатабаго\nКартлийское царство\nКахетинское царство\nИмеретинское царство\nГурия\nСванетия\nМингрелия\nАбхазия\nМир в Амасье (1555)\nТурецкая Грузия\nСефевидская Грузия\nКартли-Кахетинское царство\nГеоргиевский трактат\nКрцанисская битва\nПоздний современный период\nГрузия в составе Российской империи\nГурийская республика\nЗакавказский комиссариат\nЗДФР\nНовейшее время\nГрузинская демократическая республика\nСоветизация Грузии\nСоциалистическая Советская Республика Грузия\nЗакавказская СФСР\nГрузинская Советская Социалистическая Республика\nГрузия с 1991 года\nВоенный переворот\nРеволюция роз\nТематические статьи\nНазвание Грузии\nЦари Грузии\nГосударства\nТбилиси\nВоенная история\nВойны\nХронология\nВторжение в Грузию войск Советской России и кемалистской Турции, февраль-март 1921 года. Авторы: Э. Андерсен и Г. Парцхаладзе.\nСоветизация Грузии — присоединение Грузии и установление там советского строя частями Вооруженных Сил РСФСР.\nСопровождалось рядом вооружённых конфликтов (тифлисская операция[3], в постсоветской западной и современной грузинской литературе распространены термины советская оккупация Грузии[4][где?] и российско-грузинская война (груз. რუსეთ–საქართველოს ომი)), в которых участвовали: с одной стороны — части 11-й и 9-й Кубанской армий РСФСР, с другой — вооружённые подразделения Грузинской Демократической Республики.\nСодержание\n1 Предыстория\n2 Ход событий\n2.1 Тифлисское направление\n2.2 Другие направления\n2.3 Вмешательство Турции\n3 Окончание\n4 Последствия\n5 Примечания\n6 Литература\n7 Ссылки\nПредыстория[править | править код]\nВесной 1920 года советские войска заняли Азербайджан и провозгласили в нём советскую власть. Однако их намерениям продвинуться в Грузию помешал ряд факторов: большевистское восстание в Грузии было быстро подавлено силами правительства меньшевиков при поддержке Антанты, в то же время на польском фронте положение большевиков осложнилось. Мир с Грузией был также необходим большевикам для того, чтобы наладить отношения с Англией, тем самым прорвав международную изоляцию Советской России. В связи со всем этим советские войска были отведены от границ Грузии. 7 мая 1920 в Москве был заключён мирный договор между РСФСР и Грузинской демократической республикой. По его условиям Советская Россия признавала независимость Грузии и обещала не вмешиваться в её внутренние дела, а Грузия, в частности, легализовала положение коммунистической партии. Стороны обменялись дипломатическими представителями (советским полпредом в Грузии стал С. М. Киров).\nОсенью 1920 в результате армяно-турецкой войны была «советизирована» Армения. Таким образом, Грузия оказалась в окружении. Тем временем Киров и Орджоникидзе вели в советском руководстве кампанию за «советизацию» Грузии. Так, 12 декабря в послании Ленину и Сталину Орджоникидзе заявляет:\nПоложение в самой Грузии таково, что без особого труда мы с ней покончим: восстания в Борчалинском уезде, Абхазии, Аджарии, Душетском уезде будут проведены. Ещё раз довожу это до вашего сведения и прошу указаний.\nДожидаться этих указаний он, тем не менее, не стал, и уже 15 декабря Кавказское бюро РКП(б) приказало 11-й армии перейти границу Грузии. Однако два дня спустя, 17 декабря, пленум ЦК ВКП(б) подтвердил «решение ЦК о мирном направлении политики РСФСР на Кавказе», и операция была отменена. Орджоникидзе и Киров от имени Кавбюро вновь обратились в Москву с предложением занять Грузию:\nВсе контрреволюционные заговоры, обнаруженные на Северном Кавказе, неизменно открывают связь с Грузией. Чтобы твердо обеспечить за нами Северный Кавказ (хлеб и нефть), необходимо советизировать Грузию.\n12 января 1921 Пленум ЦК вновь отклонил предложение Кавбюро. Ленин по-прежнему выступал против операции, сомневаясь в её перспективах, тогда как Сталина и Троцкого её организаторам удалось склонить на свою сторону.\n6 февраля приказом командующего Кавказским фронтом В. Гиттиса была создана группа войск тифлисского направления под командованием М. Д. Великанова в составе нескольких стрелковых и кавалерийских дивизий и танкового отряда. В тот же день Орджоникидзе посылает Ленину, Сталину и Троцкому очередную телеграмму:\nГрузия окончательно превратилась в штаб мировой контрреволюции на ближнем востоке. Здесь орудуют французы, здесь орудуют англичане, здесь орудует Казим-бей — представитель Ангорского правительства. В горы бросаются миллионы золота, создаются в пограничной полосе с нами грабительские банды, нападающие на наши пограничные посты... Считаю необходимым ещё раз подчеркнуть надвигающуюся на Бакинский район смертельную опасность, предупредить которую можно лишь немедленным сосредоточением достаточных сил для советизации Грузии.\nОднако Политбюро по предложению Ленина решило продолжать мирные переговоры с меньшевистским правительством Грузии. На это Орджоникидзе ответил тем, что в ночь на 12 февраля 1921 в Борчалинском и Ахалкалакском уездах Грузии местные коммунисты подняли восстание, скоординированное с командованием 11-й армии. Большевиками были заняты Гори, Душети и весь Борчалинский уезд. Видя этот успех, 15 февраля Ленин отдаёт распоряжение штабу Кавказского фронта:\nМы ожидаем от РВС 11 энергичных и быстрых действий, не останавливающихся перед занятием Тифлиса.\n16 февраля 1921 Ревком Грузии во главе с председателем Ф. Махарадзе провозгласил «Грузинскую советскую республику» и обратился с просьбой о военной помощи к правительству РСФСР.\nХод событий[править | править код]\nТифлисское направление[править | править код]\n11-я Красная Армия проводит военный парад в Тифлисе, 25 февраля 1921 г.\nК началу конфликта вооружённые силы Грузии, включая регулярные части народной гвардии (партийные отряды социал-демократов), состояли из 16 пехотных батальонов (1 армейская дивизия и полк народной гвардии), 1 сапёрного батальона, 5 полевых артдивизионов (всего 52 орудия), 2 конных полков (легионов), стольких же автоэскадронов с 2 командами бронеавтомобилей, авиаотряда и 4 бронепоездов. Всего на довольствии находилась 21 тыс. человек, не считая штабов, управлений, нестроевых частей, а также крепостных полков.\n16 февраля 1921 года советские войска перешли южную границу Грузии и заняли Красный мост через реку Храми и село Шулаверы. Здесь им оказали сопротивление добровольческие отряды кахетинцев под командованием Стефана Ахметели. Далее большевики продвинулись на север к Тифлису. 19-20 февраля у села Табахмела на подходах к Тифлису части 11-й армии столкнулись с ожесточённым сопротивлением юнкеров Тифлисского военного училища (510 бойцов, 4 пушки, 6 пулемётов, командовал полковник А. Чхеидзе). Село осталось в руках грузинских юнкеров, однако красные обошли его и продолжили наступление.\nВ результате тяжелого поражения у Храми лишь около 700 грузинских военных отступило к Тифлису. Главнокомандующий грузинской армией генерал Г. Квинитадзе так оценивал ситуацию: «Судьба Тбилиси была решена уже в боях у Красного Моста и на Храми. Если бы 16 февраля противник даже одной кавалерией продолжил бы наступление, он бы смог ночью войти в Тбилиси». Несмотря на это, главнокомандующий быстрыми и энергичными действиями сумел организовать оборону города. Он разделил линию фронта на секторы:\nа) На левом берегу Куры, участке Орхеви были сгруппированы части гвардии под командованиям генерала А. М. Джиджихия.\nб) На правом берегу Куры до Табахмела, командующим Соганлугским фронтом назначен опытный генерал Г. Мазниашвили.\nв) Участок от Табахмела до Коджори был поручен генералу А. С. Андроникашвили и здесь расположили юнкеров военного училища.\nКвинитадзе разгадал основное направление наступления врага и основные силы сосредоточил на Соганлугском участке. В подчинении Г. Мазниашвили оказалось 2500 штыков, 5 батарей — гаубицы и легкие орудия армейской артиллерии, 1 бронепоезд и 2 броневика.\nВечером 18 февраля у Соганлуги показались подразделения Красной Армии. Командование красных допустило ошибку и повело войска в атаку на неразведанные позиции. Грузинские войска в течение всей ночи отбивали атаки, а на рассвете при поддержке броневиков перешли в контрнаступление и добились серьёзного успеха: в плен было взято 1600 человек, по отступающим частям 11-й Красной Армии ударила артиллерия и вслед их атаковали самолёты.\nНесмотря на поражение, противник незамедлительно изменил направление удара и 19 февраля нанес удар в направлении Табахмела. Но он не сумел прорвать линию обороны юнкеров военного училища (всего — 160 юнкеров и 350 кадетов).\nВ течение 19-20 февраля в Орхевском секторе проходили артиллерийские дуэли и незначительные столкновения. 21 февраля противник попытался обойти левый фланг защитников города. Грузинские части ответили контратакой: командование создало ударную группу под командованием генерала Джиджихия из 5 гвардейских батальонов и кавалерийской бригады, которые от деревни Лило перешли в наступление, а из Орхеви пошли в лобовую атаку 2 гвардейских батальона. Красные потерпели поражение и отступили. Грузинские войска продвинулись на 10 километров, но 23 февраля, после появления на левом фланге красной кавалерийской дивизии, отошли на прежние позиции.\n22 февраля красная кавалерия обошла фронт справа (с запада) и заняв Манглиси, стала угрожать Тифлису с тыла. Грузинское командование было вынуждено растянуть линию фронта до Цхнети. 24 февраля фронт растянулся ещё больше. Был создан Лилойский боевой участок под командованием полковника Н. Гедеванишвили. 11-я армия пополнилась дополнительными подразделениями и 24 февраля, после мощной артиллерийской подготовки, перешла в решающее наступление на всех участках фронта. Переброшенная из Баку «Восточная бригада красных курсантов» пошла в атаку на уже поредевшие ряды юнкеров военного училища, но те неоднократно в рукопашном бою отбрасывали наступающих и в течение целого дня не отступили ни на шаг.\nНа Соганлугском участке красные прорвали позиции генерала Мазниашвили и в 6 часов завладели т. н. «Тригонометрическим пунктом», но грузинское командование ввело в бой последние резервы и выбило оттуда врага, заняв высоту.\nНа левом берегу части Красной Армии пошли в атаку при поддержке 5 бронепоездов (из которых один был подбит), 3 танков и броневиков. При помощи танков наступающие взяли Орхеви, но части гвардии пошли в контратаку и вернули позиции, выбив противника из занятых позиций. При этом был подбит один из танков. Грузинская армия по всему фронту отбила наступление 11-й армии, но на оголённых флангах (следствие малочисленности армии) создалась крайне опасная обстановка: над фронтом нависла угроза окружения, так как красная кавалерия с обоих флангов обошла линию фронта. Особенно тяжелым было положение в секторе Лило. Там, где красная кавалерия обошла позиции полковника Гедеванишвили, малочисленная грузинская кавалерия попыталась её остановить контратакой у деревни Норио, но силы были слишком неравны и красные все-таки взяли деревни Мамкода, Глдани и наконец — Авчала. Из последних сил грузины сумели вернуть Авчальский вокзал — с помощью бронепоезда и отряда добровольцев.\n24 февраля правительство Н. Жордания эвакуировалось в Кутаиси. В с. Табахмела продолжали держаться юнкера, которых осталось к тому времени около 290 человек. 25 февраля положение Тифлиса стало критическим: Красная Армия в несколько раз превосходила по численности ряды защитников города, на поле боя инициатива перешла к кавалерии, которая уже реально могла окружить грузинские части. В этих условиях грузинское командование приняло решение: в целях сохранения армии, во избежание жертв среди мирного населения, и продолжения боевых действий оставить Тифлис. Так закончилась недельная оборона Тифлиса в 1921 году. Грузинские силы получили приказ об отходе. Грузинская армия должна была закрепиться у г. Мцхета, но после сдачи Тифлиса боевой дух солдат резко упал, и организованное сопротивление вооружённых сил Грузии прекратилось.\nДругие направления[править | править код]\nТем временем в тылу у большевиков 18 февраля в ходе февральского восстания 7,5-тысячная армия дашнаков внезапным ударом взяла Эривань.\nПараллельно силы 9-й Кубанской армии под командованием В. Чернышёва вели наступление в Абхазии, где 17 февраля был создан ревком. Здесь успех был переменным (так, 28 февраля грузинские войска при огневой поддержке французского флота выбили советские части из г. Гагры, однако уже на следующий день большевики вновь заняли его). 4 марта 1921 года части 31-й стрелковой дивизии 9-й армии заняли Сухуми, где была провозглашена советская власть. 9 марта был занят Зугдиди, 14 марта — Поти.\nГрузинское правительство и армия, деморализованная потерей Тифлиса, пытались организовать оборону Кутаиса, однако неожиданное продвижение частей Красной Армии с Северного Кавказа, через считавшийся непроходимым перевал Мамисони, не дало им такой возможности. 10 марта большевики вошли в покинутый Кутаис. Часть грузинских сил ушла в горы и продолжала сражаться, но основные подразделения армии и народной гвардии, а также правительство отступили в важный черноморский порт Батуми.\nВмешательство Турции[править | править код]\nКомандиры Красной Армии в Батуме. Сидят слева направо: начдив 18-й дивизии Д. П. Жлоба, военный комиссар 9-й стрелковой дивизии М. И. Лисовский, народный комиссар Военно-революционного комитета Грузии Шалва Элиава и начдив 9-й дивизии Н. В. Куйбышев; март 1921 г.\n23 февраля Кязым Карабекир, командовавший турецкими войсками в Западной Армении, объявил Грузии ультиматум, потребовав оставить города Ардахан и Артвин. Оказавшись под огнём с двух сторон, грузинское правительство было вынуждено уступить, и турки вошли в Грузию, заняв приграничные районы и оказавшись вблизи остававшегося в руках грузин Батума, к которому приближалась 18-я кавалерийская дивизия Красной Армии. Создалась возможность военного столкновения. В надежде использовать это обстоятельство грузины 7 марта достигли устного соглашения с Карабекиром, по которому турецкие войска могли войти в город, сохранив контроль над гражданской администрацией за грузинскими властями. 8 марта турки под командованием Кязым-бея заняли оборонительные позиции вокруг города, что привело к кризису в их отношениях с Советской Россией. Нарком иностранных дел Чичерин передал турецкому представителю в Москве ноту протеста; тот ответил двумя нотами, в которых говорилось, что турецкая армия лишь обеспечивает безопасность местного мусульманского населения, которой угрожает советская военная операция.\nСтремясь в сложных военных условиях на Кавказе (Армения, Дагестан, продолжение сопротивления в Грузии) прекратить боевые действия, Ленин заявил о необходимости компромисса с грузинскими меньшевиками. 8 марта грузинский ревком предложил им создать коалиционное правительство, однако социал-демократы отказались от этого.\nОднако когда 16 марта турецкие власти заявили об аннексии Батума, грузинское руководство было вынуждено сделать выбор. Надежда на французскую или британскую интервенцию уже пропала; к тому же 16 марта между Великобританией и РСФСР было подписано торговое соглашение, по которому британцы обещали воздерживаться от любой антисоветской деятельности на всей территории бывшей Российской империи. В тот же день в Москве был подписан договор о дружбе между Советской Россией и Великим национальным собранием Турции, во главе которого стоял Кемаль Ататюрк. По этому договору Ардахан и Артвин переходили к туркам, которые, в свою очередь, отказывались от претензий на Батуми. Однако покидать город турки не стали. Грузинские же лидеры предпочитали турецкой оккупации власть большевиков, и чтобы предотвратить окончательную утрату Грузией Батума, пошли на переговоры с ревкомом.\nЧасть территории Грузинской Демократической Республики, тем не менее, отошла к Турции. Впоследствии, в 1945—1953 годах, СССР выдвигал к Турции территориальные претензии относительно армянских и грузинских территорий, отошедших к ней в 1921 г., но затем отказался от этих претензий.\nОкончание[править | править код]\n17 марта в Кутаисе министр обороны Грузии Григол Лордкипанидзе и полномочный представитель советской стороны Авель Енукидзе заключили перемирие, а 18 марта — соглашение, позволявшее Красной Армии занять Батум.\nПеремирие с грузинскими меньшевиками позволило большевикам действовать косвенными методами. В Москве продолжались советско-турецкие консультации, а тем временем на окраинах Батума стояло несколько тысяч солдат грузинской армии и народной гвардии, готовых сражаться за город. 18 марта грузины под командованием генерала Георгия Мазниашвили начали уличные бои с турецким гарнизоном. Тем временем меньшевистское правительство погрузилось на итальянское судно и под конвоем французских боевых кораблей покинуло страну. Бои завершились 19 марта, когда порт и большая часть города находились в руках грузин. В тот же день Мазниашвили сдал Батум ревкому, в него вошла красная кавалерия, и там была установлена советская власть.\nПоследствия[править | править код]\nКарта границ территории, которая была предложена грузинской делегацией на Парижской мирной конференции 1919 года к включению в состав Грузинской Демократической Республики, а также территории, которые после 1921 года входят в состав соседних государств.\nПо Карсскому договору, заключённому между советскими республиками и Турцией 13 октября 1921, Грузия сохраняла Батум, однако утрачивала в пользу Турции часть земель к югу от него с городом Артвин. Сохраняющаяся за Грузией часть территории, населённая преимущественно грузинами-мусульманами, должна была получить автономию (Аджария).\nНесмотря на эмиграцию правительства Грузии и демобилизацию армии, в горах и ряде сельских районов сохранялись очаги сопротивления (так, в 1922 имело место восстание в Кахети и Хевсурети под руководством Какуцы Чолокашвили). Вторжение в Грузию привело к существенным разногласиям в среде самих большевиков. Учреждённое ими новое, коммунистическое правительство республики изначально предложило неожиданно мягкие условия своим бывшим противникам, остававшимся в стране. Ленин также был сторонником политики примирения. В 1922 противостояние общества насильственной советизации нашло своё отражение в том, что советские руководители Грузии выступили против политики централизации, которую защищали Дзержинский, Сталин и Орджоникидзе. Этот внутренний конфликт, получивший в современной историографии название «Грузинского дела», стал одним из основных вопросов спора между Сталиным и Троцким в последний год ленинского правления и отразился в «Завещании Ленина».\nИнтеллектуальное[источник не указан 800 дней] сопротивление большевистскому режиму в Грузии и периодические вспышки партизанской борьбы развились в конце концов в крупное антисоветское восстание в августе 1924. Провал восстания и волна крупномасштабных репрессий, проводимых под руководством Лаврентия Берии, деморализовали грузинское общество, а та его часть, которая наиболее активно выступала за независимость страны, оказалась репрессирована. После этого крупных попыток противостояния советской власти в Грузии не было вплоть до появления нового поколения антисоветского движения 1970-х гг.\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ 1 2 According to a Russian statistician and Soviet-era dissident, Professor I.A. Kurganov, the 1921-2 military operations against Georgia took lives of about 20,000 people. Archived copy (неопр.). Дата обращения: 3 ноября 2006. Архивировано 5 ноября 2006 года.\n↑ Ayfer Özçelik: Ali Fuat Cebesoy: 1882-10 Ocak 1968, publisher Akçağ, 1993, page 206. (тур.)\n↑ Тифлисская операция 1921 (неопр.). БСЭ. Дата обращения: 3 февраля 2011.\n↑ Debo R. (1992). Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918—1921, pp. 182, 361—364. McGill-Queen’s Press. ISBN 0-7735-0828-7\nЛитература[править | править код]\nХачапуридзе Г. В. Борьба грузинского народа за установление Советской власти. 3-е изд. — М.: Госполитиздат, 1956.\nAllen, WED. New Political Boundaries in the Caucasus (англ.) // Geographical Journal (англ.)русск. : journal. — 1927. — May (vol. 69, No. 5, no. 5). — P. 430—441. — JSTOR 1782090.\n(фр.) Andrew Andersen et George Partskhaladze (1/2009), La guerre soviéto-géorgienne et la soviétisation de la Géorgie (février-mars 1921). Revue historique des Armées, 254: 67-75\nBlank, Stephen (1993). The Soviet Conquest of Georgia. Central Asian Survey, 33-46:12.\nCaucasian Boundaries. Documents and Maps. 1802–1946 (англ.) // Central Asian Survey (англ.)русск. : journal / Anita L. Burdett. — 2001. — 1 June (vol. 20, no. 2). — P. 229—249. — doi:10.1080/02634930120073523. Архивировано 3 января 2013 года.\nБорисова, И. Д. Российско-грузинские межреспубликанские связи 1917—1922 гг. / И. Д. Борисова // PANDECTAE: сб. ст. преподавателей, аспирантов и соискателей каф. гос.-правовых дисциплин юрид. фак. ВГПУ. — Владимир: Изд-во ВГПУ, 2004.\nStephen F. Jones. The Establishment of Soviet Power in Transcaucasia: The Case of Georgia 1921-1928 (англ.) // Europe-Asia Studies : journal. — 1988. — October (vol. 40, No. 4, no. 4). — P. 616—639. — JSTOR 151812.\nКаземзаде, Фируз (1951), The Struggle for the Transcaucasus. (1917—1921). New York: The Philosophical Library of New York.\nКаутский, Карл: Georgia: A Social-Democratic Peasant Republic — Impressions And Observations. International Bookshops Ltd., London [etc.] 1921.\nСсылки[править | править код]\nПортал «СССР»\nТифлисская операция 1921 // Большая советская энциклопедия : [в 30 т.] / гл. ред. А. М. Прохоров. — 3-е изд. — М. : Советская энциклопедия, 1969—1978.\nДля улучшения этой статьи желательно:\nПроверить достоверность указанной в статье информации.\nНайти и оформить в виде сносок ссылки на независимые авторитетные источники, подтверждающие написанное.\nПожалуйста, после исправления проблемы исключите её из списка параметров. После устранения всех недостатков этот шаблон может быть удалён любым участником.\nЮжный и Юго-Западный театры военных действий Гражданской войны в России\nБессарабия (1917—1918)\nКиев (1917—1918)\nМугань\nЗакавказье\nБаку (1918)\nДонбасс-Дон\n1-й Кубань\nМедведовская\n1-й Екатеринодар\nВосстание Ейского Отдела (Штурм 29 апреля)\nЕйск — Таганрог\nСтепь\nЯссы — Дон\nРостов\nКрым\n2-й Кубань\n2-й Екатеринодар\n1-я Царицын\nВоронеж — Поворино\n2-я Царицын\nЕкатеринослав\nСеверный Кавказ (1918—1919) (Бои на Северном Кавказе)\nЗападная Украина (1918—1919)\n3-я Царицын\nКиев (январь 1919)\nОдесса-Николаев\nУкраина (1919)\nБои за Донбасс\nГригорьева восстание\nМанычская операция (1919)\nВёшенское восстание\nИюньское наступление\nХарьков (июнь 1919)\nОборона Царицына\nМосковский поход\nАвгустовское наступление\nРейд Мамонтова\nНежин-Полтава\n1-я Одесса\nКиев (август 1919)\nПерегоновка\nОрёл — Кромы\nВоронеж — Касторное\nКиев (декабрь 1919)\nХопёр — Дон\nХарьков (декабрь 1919)\nПавлоград — Екатеринослав\nАлексеево-Леоново\nПервый Зимний поход\nДонбасс\nРостов — Новочеркасск\nПервый рейд Революционной повстанческой армии Украины\n2-я Одесса\nСеверный Кавказ (1920)\nКрасное восстание в Ейске\nБаку (1920)\nЭнзели\nГянджинское восстание\nУлагаевский десант\nОбиточная коса\nСеверная Таврия\nМахновщина\nТамбов\nКрым\nПерекоп — Чонгар\nГрузия\nВторой Зимний поход\nБазар\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Советизация_Грузии&oldid=114383815\nКатегории:\nИстория Грузии\nОперации и сражения Гражданской войны в России\nВойны Грузии\n1921 год в Грузии\nФевраль 1921 года\nМарт 1921 года\nСкрытые категории:\nВикипедия:Статьи с некорректным использованием шаблонов:Cite web (не указан язык)\nСтраницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN\nВикипедия:Статьи, требующие конкретизации\nВикипедия:Нет источников с июля 2019\nВикипедия:Статьи без источников (тип: не указан)\nВикипедия:Статьи с утверждениями без источников более 14 дней\nСтатьи со ссылками на портал\nВикипедия:Статьи, достоверность которых требует проверки\nВикипедия:Статьи без ссылок на источники\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nТекущая версия\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nВ других проектах\nВикисклад\nНа других языках\nالعربية\nAzərbaycanca\nČeština\nEnglish\nSuomi\nFrançais\nעברית\nHrvatski\nՀայերեն\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\nქართული\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nPolski\nپنجابی\nPortuguês\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nСрпски / srpski\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\nاردو\n中文\nПравить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 23 мая 2021 в 17:25.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования.","warc_headers":{"content-length":"48474","content-type":"text/plain","warc-identified-content-language":"rus","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B8","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:bd698c6c-a25c-4273-8225-123420dc4fd8>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T10:34:54Z","warc-type":"conversion","warc-block-digest":"sha1:EIDKXCWORRXSZCDH65QT5N6OUIM4KTVA","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:a641dfe0-7a46-46e9-af4c-dcc9e7c6ccd3>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.9071069},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996629},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996629},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98775697},{"label":"ru","prob":0.89165056},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98474944},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9929257},{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000391},{"label":"ru","prob":0.88782895},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8961845},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9899094},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9999115},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97998196},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8825813},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96365875},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9712482},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9860144},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9490464},{"label":"ru","prob":0.982649},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993882},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97107714},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.999472},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9999201},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9893643},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.97850186},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9519751},{"label":"ru","prob":0.94389814},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8486301},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.96839523},{"label":"ru","prob":0.81495136},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9984732},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98414785},{"label":"ru","prob":0.87353575},{"label":"ru","prob":0.985454},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.99907285},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.95724},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9598816},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9954729},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9608827},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9974404},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9708911},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9937258},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9898764},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9852},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9320365},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9589191},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9241372},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8162475},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90950686},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8757176},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9509117},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93821067},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.818113},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943138},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9608432},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8356179},null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9891234},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9973017},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9605411},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9729579},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9794489},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9692977},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9501354},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9473999},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98443365},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8123043},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8955021},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99281573},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9815966},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90894014},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99261075},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9978433},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8537031},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9110658},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9945641},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.94777083},{"label":"ru","prob":0.83474475},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98347783},{"label":"ru","prob":0.912427},{"label":"ru","prob":0.88277096},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9573222},{"label":"ru","prob":0.969904},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97740114},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99208015},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9580117},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99919903},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9451041},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9300539},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8980358},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9976224},{"label":"bg","prob":0.99459475},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9724125},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8334621},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97723836},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9222111},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9061964},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9334228},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97743416},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98546237},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99235076},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9260829},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9786469},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9992704},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9091479},{"label":"ru","prob":0.89165056},{"label":"ru","prob":0.89235216},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95726454},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9005496},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9892251},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99776345},{"label":"ru","prob":0.86600107},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99610746},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9754324},{"label":"ru","prob":0.888775},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9259575},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9517899},{"label":"ru","prob":0.83603257},{"label":"ru","prob":0.986122},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9857951},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9877212},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986684},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9258848},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9200966},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92198485},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9951409},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9910089},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9976958},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92847484},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93953156},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.96606946},{"label":"ru","pr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{"content":"Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 6 октября 2019; проверки требуют 2 правки.\nТекущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 6 октября 2019; проверки требуют 2 правки.\nПерейти к навигации Перейти к поиску\nУ этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Трое с площади Карронад.\nТрое с площади Карронад\nАвтор\nВладислав Крапивин\nЯзык оригинала\nрусский\nОригинал издан\n1979 год\nИздатель\nЭксмо\nСтраниц\n512\nНоситель\nКнига\nISBN\n978-5-699-26377-6\nТекст на стороннем сайте\nТро́е с пло́щади Каррона́д — повесть Владислава Крапивина. Одно из самых известных и эмоциональных произведений писателя[1].\nСодержание\n1 Сюжет\n2 Прототипы\n3 Экранизация\n4 Примечания\nСюжет[править | править код]\nПятиклассник Славка Семибратов с мамой после нескольких переездов приезжает, наконец-то, в приморский Город Славкиной мечты. В предыдущих городах в жизни Славки не было никаких просветов — везде тоскливая серость. Единственное, что было хорошего в его прежней жизни — парусная секция, в которой он успел получить удостоверение яхтенного рулевого III класса.\nВ Городе, в новой школе, Славка попадает на пионерский сбор, на котором обсуждается дерзкая выходка Тима Селя — он пробрался на пришвартованную баркентину «Сатурн» с целью перегнать судно через бухту и посадить на сваи, чтобы «Сатурн» разбило волнами. Цель этого мероприятия — не допустить переоборудования парусного судна в ресторан. Участники сбора, в целом, поддержали Тима и вместо суровых мер предложили вынести Селю строгий выговор и то — не за попытку угона судна, а за вождение без судоводительских прав. Но после того, как за Тима вступился Славка, строгий выговор заменили простым порицанием.\nЭтот эпизод послужил началом крепкой и преданной дружбы между Тимом Селем и Славкой Семибратовым. Вместе они поступают в парусную секцию и живут насыщенной и беззаботной жизнью. Тим делится со Славкой своей идеей поставить памятник ребятам: в Городе более трёхсот памятников, но нет ни одного памятника мальчишкам. Мальчишкам, погибшим во время Первой обороны, Второй обороны и мальчишкам, гибнущим в наши дни от боеприпасов, сохранившихся с последней войны. Эти боеприпасы — настоящая беда Города. То и дело появляются сообщения о гибели детей из-за неосторожного обращения с найденными боеприпасами. Памятник, по задумке Тима и Славки должен изображать трёх мальчишек, каждый из которых символизирует свою эпоху, и стоять на площади Карронад.\nОднажды Славка и Тим причалили к берегу, где группа детей копалась в куче металлолома и один из них держал в руках снаряд. Славка отбирает у детей снаряд. Они с Тимом решают доставить его военным, но нести опасную находку нужно в руках, чтобы случайно не ударить. Некоторое время Славка и Тим спорят, кто понесёт снаряд, а кто поведёт яхту к причалу. В конце концов, Славка, используя свою власть капитана приказывает Тиму вести яхту, а сам, положив снаряд в портфель, несёт его к воинской части. Его страшный путь закончился благополучно, но Тим горько обиделся на Славку и отказывается с ним общаться. Славка не понимает, в чём дело, но все его попытки восстановить отношения с Тимом терпят неудачу.\nНа самом же деле отчуждение Тима вызвано тем, что он струсил — в душе он обрадовался, когда Славка приказал ему вести яхту к причалу. И стыд собственной трусости не позволял ему больше общаться со Славкой. Но истинную причину он предпочитает прятать под маской гордой обиды.\nМама Славки собирается вернуться в тот город, который он с такой радостью покинул, и забирает его с собой. На одной из станций к поезду прибегает Тим. Он приковывает Славку цепью к фонарному столбу, срывая, тем самым, отъезд. Славка остаётся в Городе.\nПрототипы[править | править код]\nПод Городом в книге, очевидно, подразумевается Севастополь. Однако это название в тексте нигде не встречается, указывается лишь Город с заглавной буквы. Все географические названия в книге изменены, однако прототипы легко угадываются. Так, под Орудийной бухтой подразумевается Артиллерийская, под Качаевкой — Учкуевка, под станцией «Чёрная речка» — станция «Инкерман-1». Последнее название взято не случайно — по Инкерману действительно протекает речка Чёрная, впадающая в Севастопольскую бухту. Кроме того, в ранних зарисовках повести (изданных впоследствии в «лоскутной» повести «Нарисованные герои») явно говорится о Севастополе.\nПод школой № 20, судя по описанию школы и её географического расположения, подразумевается Севастопольская школа № 3, находящаяся на ул. Советская. В этой же школе снимался телесериал «Трое с площади Карронад». Однако история школы была выдумана писателем — до революции в этом здании размещался не кадетский корпус, а реальное училище[2].\nОдним из мест жительства главного героя Славки, указан Невьянск («Когда Славка был маленьким и жил в Невьянске, он ходил с мамой на работу»).\nПрототипами главных героев стали четвероклассники Вадик и Артур. Интересно, что впоследствии Вадим Вадимович Хапаев получил Крапивинскую премию за литературный сценарий для фильма «Севастополь. Испытание войной»[3].\n«Сатурн» — название вымышленное. В советском флоте не было баркентины с таким именем. Прототипом послужила баркентина «Кропоткин», позже превращенная в ресторан в Севастополе.\nЭкранизация[править | править код]\nВ 2008 году режиссёром Виктором Волковым был снят четырёхсерийный телевизионный фильм «Трое с площади Карронад»[4].\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ Николай Скатов. Русская литература XX века. — Олма-Пресс, 2006. — Т. 2. — С. 298. — 2288 с. — 5000 экз. — ISBN 5-94848-211-1, 5-94848-245-6, 5-94848-262-6, 5-94848-307-X.\n↑ Школа-гимназия № 3 (неопр.). Дата обращения: 19 декабря 2020. Архивировано 17 июня 2012 года.\n↑ Тюменская линия — Объявлены победители международной литературной премии имени Владислава Крапивина (неопр.). Дата обращения: 14 октября 2010. Архивировано 17 июня 2012 года.\n↑ Трое с площади Карронад (рус.). Сайт Владислава Крапивина. Дата обращения: 12 февраля 2012.\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Трое_с_площади_Карронад_(повесть)&oldid=111161273\nКатегории:\nКниги по алфавиту\nПовести Владислава Крапивина\nПовести 1979 года\nСкрытые категории:\nВикипедия:Статьи с некорректным использованием шаблонов:Cite web (не указан язык)\nСтраницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nТекущая версия\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nНа других языках\nДобавить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 19 декабря 2020 в 00:20.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:EWGPFFIQRTRKXMCX5PABQDN5ECDENDBB","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4_(%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C)","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:a2447391-f5c9-427e-ae12-ab592b0856fb>","content-length":"13048","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:d8e14e92-d474-449c-bac5-fbec6a201700>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:41:06Z","warc-identified-content-language":"rus"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.9445183},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996843},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996843},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98775697},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9998384},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95289826},{"label":"ru","prob":0.89165705},{"label":"ru","prob":0.8152771},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97951907},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8740544},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943334},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9777806},null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9959024},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82473564},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.99597216},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9700265},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986684},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.974275},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93471843},{"label":"ru","prob":0.94228494},{"label":"ru","prob":0.88981175},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987086},{"label":"ru","prob":0.997434},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99795},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9992154},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99835956},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9990062},{"label":"ru","prob":0.80624354},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99776226},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9980572},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99867225},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9892064},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9931899},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90554893},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996079},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91622376},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.99980336},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987795},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9927288},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9312134},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.94866097},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98173344},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9673162},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9941388},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99323565},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98929805},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},null,{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000112},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9886211},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95933545},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996007},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9912934},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9997866},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99993795},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9910571},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97265697},{"label":"uk","prob":0.961486},{"label":"ru","prob":0.84560204},{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000242},{"label":"ru","prob":0.999362},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92876965},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9151989},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98965615},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9989869},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9244532},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99682844},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.98425925},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9928283},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9320668},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97981536},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9201758},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93145066},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99568003},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993996},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987871},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9999529},{"label":"ru","prob":0.829746},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9791933},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96154326},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9753464},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943392},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99583626},{"label":"ru","prob":0.995088},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9902967},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9946938},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993549},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9752074}]}}
{"content":"Изда́тельство полити́ческой литерату́ры ЦК КПСС (Политизда́т) — центральное издательство политической и историко-партийной литературы в СССР[2][3][4].\nИздательство существовало в 1918—1991 годы. Преобразовано в издательство «Республика».\nСодержание\n1 История\n2 Издательская деятельность\n3 Руководители издательства\n4 Награды\n5 См. также\n6 Примечания\n7 Литература\nИстория[править | править код]\nПосле Октябрьской революции 1917 года перед большевистским властями встал вопрос о координации издательской деятельности в республике, в частности необходимо было организовать выпуск общественно-политической литературы. С этой целью летом 1918 года было создано единое издательство «Коммунист»[2][3][4], которое уже 21 мая 1919 года Постановлением ВЦИК вошло в состав Государственного издательства при Наркомпросе РСФСР в качестве отдела политической литературы[2][4].\nПосле реорганизации в 1921 году Госиздат стал объединять крупнейшие советские издательства, а в 1930 году на его базе было создано Объединение государственных издательств РСФСР — ОГИЗ РСФСР.\n15 августа 1931 года ЦК ВКП(б) принял Постановление «Об издательской работе», в котором на первый план выдвигалось издание политической и технической литературы: «Книга должна быть боевой и актуально-политической, она должна вооружить широчайшие массы строителей социализма марксистско-ленинской теорией и технико-производственными знаниями». Для выполнения этой партийной директивы издательская система СССР была перестроена с целью уделить особое внимание выпуску именно политической и технической литературы. Из системы Соцэкгиза («Издательство социально-экономической литературы» в составе ОГИЗа) было выделено издание массовой партийной литературы по марксистско-ленинской теории, и на этой базе (вместе с Маспартгизом — «Издательство массовой партийной литературы», которое выделилось из ОГИЗа) образовалось «Издательство партийной литературы» (Партиздат), подчинявшееся непосредственно Культпропу (отдел культуры и пропаганды) ЦК ВКП(б)[2][3][4].\nВ январе 1941 года Партиздат переименовали в Государственное издательство политической литературы (Госполитиздат) и опять включили в состав ОГИЗа[2][3][4].\nВ 1963 году Госполитиздат стал главным партийным издательством КПСС и был переименован в Издательство политической литературы ЦК КПСС — Политиздат[2][3][4].\nПосле запрета деятельности КПСС в конце 1991 года Политиздат потерял статус центрального политического издательства и одного из самых масштабных и влиятельных в стране, как и ярко выраженную партийность. В декабре 1991 года решением Совета Министров — Правительства РСФСР Издательство политической литературы ЦК КПСС было преобразовано в государственное и стало именоваться «Республика».\nИздательская деятельность[править | править код]\nПитирим Сорокин в серии «Мыслители XX века». Политиздат, 1992\nПолитиздату Госкомиздатом СССР был присвоен код 079. В системе Госкомиздата СССР в 1980-х гг. издательство входило в Главную редакцию общественно-политической литературы.\nОно имело практически монопольное право на выпуск всей официальной общественно-политической литературы на территории СССР в том числе произведения классиков марксизма, материалы съездов партии, пленумов ЦК, партийные документы, доклады и выступления руководителей КПСС, зарубежных коммунистических и рабочих партий. Политиздат также печатал научную, научно-популярную и учебную литературу по научному коммунизму, марксистско-ленинской философии, политэкономии, отечественной истории и истории КПСС, партийному строительству, научному атеизму, внешней политике СССР, мировому революционному процессу[2][3][4].\nВ 1973 году издательство выпустило 398 названий общим тиражом более 108 миллионов экземпляров, что составляло 20 % всей изданной в стране литературы по общественно-политическим и социально-экономическим проблемам[2].\nВ 1977 году издательство выпустило 375 названий книг и брошюр общим тиражом более 73,6 миллионов экземпляров[3].\nВ 1979 году издательство выпустило 389 названий книг и брошюр тиражом около 70 миллионов экземпляров[4].\nСводные показатели издательской деятельности издательства были следующие:\n1973[2]\n1977[3]\n1979[4][5]\n1980[6]\n1981[7]\n1985[8]\n1987[9]\n1988[10]\n1989[11]\n1990[12]\nКол-во книг и брошюр, печатных единиц 398 375 389 403 375 413 346 354 337 297\nТираж, тыс. экз. 108676 73600 69889,5 74451,7 98928,7 86238,6 87257,3 87019,5 58493,6 47240,3\nПечатных листов-оттисков, тыс. 1431326 — 845460,7 882649,9 1020024,1 989206,2 1067811,8 1060014,4 872874,5 804963,2\nСреди выпущенной Политиздатом литературы можно выделить такие многотомные проекты, как Полное собрание сочинений В. И. Ленина в 55 томах (1958—1965) и второе 50-томное издание сочинений К. Маркса и Ф. Энгельса (1974). Также были изданы 10-томное издание «Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза в резолюциях и решениях съездов, конференций и пленумов ЦК», 4-томник Л. И. Брежнева «Ленинским курсом». Наибольшую известность получили книжные серии Политиздата: «Пламенные революционеры», «О жизни и о себе», «Герои Советской Родины», «Владыки капиталистического мира», «За фасадом буржуазных теорий», «Библиотека атеистической литературы»[2][4].\nРуководители издательства[править | править код]\n1940—1941 — Молодцов, Василий Сергеевич\n1971—1982 — Тропкин, Николай Васильевич\nНаграды[править | править код]\nЗа особые заслуги в области книгоиздания в 1970 году Политиздат был удостоен ордена Трудового Красного Знамени[2][3][4].\nСм. также[править | править код]\nВоениздат\nПолитиздат Украины\nПримечания[править | править код]\n↑ Книгоиздание СССР. Цифры и факты. 1917—1987 / Е. Л. Немировский, М. Л. Платова. — М.: Книга, 1987. — С. 116. — 320 с. — 3000 экз.\n↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Тропкин, 1975.\n↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 СЭС, 1981, с. 1041.\n↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Сикорский, 1982.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1979 году: Статистический сборник / Всесоюзная книжная палата. — М.: Статистика, 1980. — С. 97. — 207 с. — 10 000 экз.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1980 году: Статистический сборник / Всесоюзная книжная палата. — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1981. — С. 131. — 255 с.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1981 году: Статистический сборник / Всесоюзная книжная палата. — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1982. — С. 129. — 255 с. — 10 000 экз.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1985 году: Статистический сборник / Всесоюзная ордена «Знак Почёта» книжная палата. — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1986. — С. 131. — 311 с.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1987 году: Статистический сборник / НПО «Всесоюзная книжная палата». — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1988. — С. 133. — 238 с. — 8000 экз. — ISBN 5-279-00132-5.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1988 году: Статистический сборник / НПО «Всесоюзная книжная палата». — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1989. — С. 133. — 238 с. — 6500 экз. — ISBN 5-279-00154-6.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1989 году: Статистический сборник / НПО «Всесоюзная книжная палата». — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1990. — С. 135. — 239 с. — 6000 экз. — ISBN 5-279-00389-1.\n↑ Печать СССР в 1990 году: Статистический сборник / НПО «Всесоюзная книжная палата». — М.: Финансы и статистика, 1991. — С. 135. — 288 с. — ISBN 5-279-00634-3.\nЛитература[править | править код]\nКПСС о средствах массовой информации и пропаганды. — М.: Политиздат, 1979.\nПолитиздат / Тропкин Н. В. // Плата — Проб. — М. : Советская энциклопедия, 1975. — (Большая советская энциклопедия : [в 30 т.] / гл. ред. А. М. Прохоров ; 1969—1978, т. 20). (копия)\nПолитиздат // Советский энциклопедический словарь / Науч.-ред. совет: А. М. Прохоров (пред.). — М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1981. — С. 1041. — 1600 с.\nПолитиздат // Книговедение: энциклопедический словарь / Ред. коллегия: Н. М. Сикорский (гл. ред.) и др. — М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1982. — 664 с.\nТропкин Н. В. О некоторых вопросах издания политической литературы // Книга. Исследования и материалы. Вып. 12. — М.: Книга, 1966. — С. 5—27.\nПолитиздат:\nПортал «СССР»\nПортал «Философия»\nНормативный контроль\nVIAF: 8355154260494124480005\nWorldCat VIAF: 8355154260494124480005\nИсточник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Политиздат&oldid=115429621\nКатегории:\nОрганизации, награждённые орденом Трудового Красного Знамени\nИздательства, основанные в 1918 году\nИздательства, закрытые в 1991 году\nИздательства СССР\nПропаганда\nПолитическая литература\nИздатели научной литературы\nСкрытые категории:\nСтраницы, использующие волшебные ссылки ISBN\nСтатьи со ссылками на портал\nНавигация\nПерсональные инструменты\nВы не представились системе\nОбсуждение\nВклад\nСоздать учётную запись\nВойти\nПространства имён\nСтатья\nОбсуждение\nВарианты\nПросмотры\nЧитать\nПравить\nПравить код\nИстория\nЕщё\nПоиск\nНавигация\nЗаглавная страница\nРубрикация\nУказатель А — Я\nИзбранные статьи\nСлучайная страница\nТекущие события\nУчастие\nСообщить об ошибке\nСообщество\nФорум\nСвежие правки\nНовые страницы\nСправка\nПожертвовать\nИнструменты\nСсылки сюда\nСвязанные правки\nСлужебные страницы\nПостоянная ссылка\nСведения о странице\nЦитировать страницу\nЭлемент Викиданных\nПечать/экспорт\nСоздать книгу\nСкачать как PDF\nВерсия для печати\nНа других языках\nRomână\nПравить ссылки\nЭта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 12 июля 2021 в 09:06.\nТекст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:IX3SDL6MSQTH5GTGNQDODQ4AVK5NVP6H","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"15810","warc-type":"conversion","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:39be1544-9bc3-4428-b43b-53e0ec9b3bb0>","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:a4dedf2a-b6dc-424a-8d39-c4500a277124>","warc-target-uri":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:39:54Z","warc-identified-content-language":"rus"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"ru","prob":0.82998186},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"ru","prob":0.9201897},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99430615},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9986684},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.991935},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9886253},{"label":"ru","prob":0.94803256},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9972775},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93968934},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9956998},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9980877},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99171644},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98559934},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99195164},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99421364},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9816589},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9553401},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98246884},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9669594},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99365413},{"label":"ru","prob":0.992543},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99095494},{"label":"ru","prob":0.999398},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.986006},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96494067},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9875538},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9711246},{"label":"ru","prob":0.85132647},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9948362},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99060214},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.91622376},null,null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.86162454},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93321073},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9157617},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9594129},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92411053},{"label":"ru","prob":0.91304016},{"label":"ru","prob":0.90649015},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92240316},{"label":"ru","prob":0.832259},null,null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.80258185},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.84711564},{"label":"ru","prob":0.89494735},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9708607},null,null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.99539924},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99709934},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9969146},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96872157},null,null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.98173344},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9941388},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9907989},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99323565},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98929805},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},null,{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000112},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9886211},{"label":"ru","prob":0.95933545},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9996007},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99945277},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9912934},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9997866},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99993795},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97265697},{"label":"uk","prob":0.961486},{"label":"ru","prob":0.84560204},{"label":"ru","prob":1.0000242},{"label":"ru","prob":0.999362},{"label":"ru","prob":0.82824874},{"label":"ru","prob":0.92876965},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9151989},{"label":"ru","prob":0.98965615},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9989869},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9244532},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99682844},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.98425925},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9928283},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9320668},{"label":"ru","prob":0.97981536},null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.9201758},{"label":"ru","prob":0.93145066},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99568003},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9993996},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9987871},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9999529},{"label":"ru","prob":0.829746},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9791933},{"label":"ru","prob":0.96154326},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9753464},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9943392},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99583626},{"label":"ru","prob":0.995088},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9902967},{"label":"ro","prob":0.99815744},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99323994},{"label":"ru","prob":0.99942327},{"label":"ru","prob":0.9752074}]}}
{"content":"43°18′52″N 3°56′32″O / 43.314539, -3.942253Coordenadas: 43°18′52″N 3°56′32″O / 43.314539, -3.942253\nInformación religiosa\nCulto\nIglesia católica\nDiócesis\nSantander\nOrden\nClero secular\nAdvocación\nSanta Cruz\nHistoria del edificio\nConstrucción\nSiglo XII\nDatos arquitectónicos\nTipo\nColegiata\nEstilo\nRománico\nIdentificador como monumento\nRI-51-0000352\nAño de inscripción\n7 de noviembre de 1930\n[editar datos en Wikidata]\nFachada nave central.\nLa Colegiata de Santa Cruz se encuentra ubicada en Socobio, lugar perteneciente al municipio de Castañeda, en la Comunidad Autónoma de Cantabria (España). Fue declarada Monumento Nacional el 7 de noviembre de 1930. Fue dedicada a Santa María de Tiermes.\nÍndice\n1 Historia\n2 Galería de imágenes\n3 Referencias\n4 Enlaces externos\nHistoria[editar]\nSanta Cruz de Castañeda surgió hacia el siglo X como un monasterio benedictino cluniacense. Posteriormente, en el siglo XII, tal como le sucedió al de Santa Juliana de Santillana del Mar, se convirtió en colegiata a cargo de un grupo de canónigos de la orden de San Agustín. Por estas fechas constituía un realengo cuyo señorío cedió Alfonso XI, ya en el siglo XIV, a su hijo don Tello para pasar de éste, por herencia, a la familia Manrique.\nFue del señorío de los Lara hasta que en el año 1131 Alfonso VII tomó posesión, destituyendo al Conde Rodrigo González de Lara. Desde entonces fue el valle de realengo hasta 1369. El Rey D.Enrique II de Castilla dio a su hermano Don Tello de Castilla, casado con Juana de Lara, los señoríos de Lara, Aguilar y Castañeda incluyendo a la colegiata sucediéndole su hijo Don Juan Téllez de Castilla\nPara 1397, era su abad Juan González de Polanco, mayordomo procurador de Don Juan Téllez de Castilla y su esposa Leonor de la Vega. En 1420 la colegiata de Castañeda aparece como propiedad de su hija Doña Aldonza Téllez de Castilla y su esposo García Fernández Manrique, condes de Castañeda a partir de 1430.\nDel primitivo monasterio sólo se conserva la iglesia que se construyó en el siglo XII en estilo románico y cuyo aspecto ha sido alterado por añadidos y reformas.\nLa traza original era de una sola nave, transepto sobresaliente por ambos lados de la misma, tres ábsides escalonados -el central en la cabecera de la nave y los otros dos formando sendas capillas en el lado oriental del transepto- y una torre cuadrada adosada al ángulo que formaban el lienzo meridional de la nave y el occidental del transepto eminente por ese lado. Más tarde, ya en época barroca, se sustituyó el ábside del lado sur por una capilla que perteneció a don Juan de Frómista y una sacristía. La planta aún sufrió otras transformaciones con el aditamento a principios del siglo XIII de una nave secundaria al norte de la que ya existía, y otra nave transversal levantada en el siglo XVII.\nAl exterior destaca, lógicamente, la torre por su altura y, casi en mayor medida, el voluminoso cimborrio algo más bajo que aquella pero de mayores proporciones en planta. Se estructura en dos cuerpos superpuestos, de los que el inferior es de sección cuadrada y el superior octogonal irregular por simple achaflanamiento de sus aristas. Este cimborrio conserva ventanas de varios estilos, incluso el mozárabe.[1]​\nTambién la torre posee dos cuerpos, éstos de muy desigual altura, siendo el superior el más reducido. Va calado por una ventana geminada en cada uno de sus cuatro lados, cuyo parteluz está formado por un machón al que se adosa una columna rematada por un capitel figurativo.\nPortalada.\nEn el imafronte de la nave principal se sitúa la gran portada a la que las ocho arquivoltas de medio punto que la forman le confieren un amplio abocinamiento. El dovelaje no presenta ornamentación alguna. Sólo el cimacio que corre sobre los capiteles y el guardapolvo del arco muestran relieves decorativos de palmetas. Los capiteles, bastante deteriorados, lucen figuras de animales reales o quiméricos. Existe una segunda portada practicada en el frente occidental de la nave izquierda cobijada por un soportal del siglo XVII. Se trata de un doble vano de arcos apuntados uno de los cuales ha sido parcialmente cegado.\nEntrada nave funeraria.\nEl ábside central muestra en su lienzo interior una arquería de ocho arcos de medio punto y columnas rematadas por capiteles tallados que presentan variadas figuras humanas y de animales. En esta capilla se guarda un Cristo gótico del siglo XIV.\nGalería de imágenes[editar]\nVistas\nvista cenital.\nvista oeste.\nvista sur.\nvista este.\nvista norte.\nCapitel sur campanario.\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ http://hablandodecantabria.blogspot.com.es/2016/07/la-colegiata-de-castaneda.html Archivado el 12 de octubre de 2016 en Wayback Machine. Colegiata de Castañeda - Hablando de Cantabria\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nWikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Colegiata de Santa Cruz de Castañeda.\nWeb oficial de su centro de interpretación.\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q5776821\nMultimedia: Collegiate of Santa Cruz de Castañeda\nPatrimonio histórico\nBIC: RI-51-0000352\nDatos: Q5776821\nMultimedia: Collegiate of Santa Cruz de Castañeda\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colegiata_de_Santa_Cruz_de_Castañeda&oldid=137462471»\nCategorías:\nColegiatas de España del siglo XII\nIglesias de Cantabria del siglo XII\nBienes de interés cultural de Cantabria\nArquitectura en Cantabria en el siglo XII\nColegiatas de Cantabria\nIglesias dedicadas a la Santa Cruz\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos con datos por trasladar a Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos con coordenadas en Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BIC\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nDeutsch\nEuskara\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 4 ago 2021 a las 21:20.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:00:45Z","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colegiata_de_Santa_Cruz_de_Casta%C3%B1eda","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:6783717a-6330-4adb-9da9-264650dad9f5>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:8025af19-1697-4252-887e-f73cd344af5d>","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-block-digest":"sha1:G57ZQTD5FVRI4Y47X2H2BEQEY7PQ4FPT","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","content-length":"6814"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.7634081},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,{"label":"es","prob":0.850657},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9810443},{"label":"es","prob":0.99989605},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9921014},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99200463},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94156057},{"label":"es","prob":0.984929},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8374806},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98292077},{"label":"es","prob":0.817661},null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.9761999},{"label":"es","prob":0.9834065},{"label":"es","prob":0.9897213},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98264444},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9945992},{"label":"es","prob":0.89311033},{"label":"es","prob":0.93400866},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98704076},{"label":"es","prob":0.98670495},{"label":"es","prob":0.8462057},{"label":"es","prob":0.99193287},{"label":"es","prob":0.971972},{"label":"es","prob":0.9748754},{"label":"es","prob":0.992535},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9339552},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9113741},{"label":"es","prob":0.9429671},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8510122},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9720149},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.9404046},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},{"label":"es","prob":0.9253124},{"label":"es","prob":0.93942374},{"label":"es","prob":0.81970346},{"label":"es","prob":0.9766098},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.970681},{"label":"es","prob":0.94594175},{"label":"es","prob":0.9240744},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.98572516},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"Si consideras que este artículo debería existir y dispones de fuentes fiables, puedes crearlo teniendo en cuenta nuestros pilares y, si quieres, usando nuestro asistente.\nGranada\n37. Gay Armenteros, Juan; Viñes Millet, Cristina (1982). Historia de Granada: La época contemporánea. Granada: Don Quijote. p. 19. ISBN 84-85933-24-9\n247 kB (26 583 palabras) - 20:10 11 sep 2021\nReino de Granada (corona de Castilla)\nReino de Granada[1]​ fue una jurisdicción territorial o provincia de la corona de Castilla desde su reconquista en 1492 hasta la división territorial de España\n9 kB (1023 palabras) - 22:24 1 sep 2021\nGuerra de Granada\nintervención de Estados Unidos de América de 1983 en la isla caribeña homónima, véase Invasión de Granada. La guerra de Granada fue el conjunto de campañas\n66 kB (8189 palabras) - 19:44 11 sep 2021\nLuis de Granada\nFray Luis de Granada, O. P., (Granada, España, 1504-Lisboa, Portugal, 31 de diciembre de 1588)[1]​ fue un escritor dominico español. Su nombre de pila fue\n13 kB (1557 palabras) - 22:28 1 sep 2021\nGranada de mano\nUna granada de mano es un proyectil explosivo que se lanza con la mano o con un arma específica (lanzagranadas).[1]​ La palabra «granada» viene del latín\n34 kB (4048 palabras) - 05:09 2 sep 2021\nJuan Macías\nde sus devotos de la Hermandad de Caballeros de San Martín de Porres y San Juan Macías O.P.. Esta Hermandad, junto a la de la Hermandad de San Juan Macías\n16 kB (2296 palabras) - 03:39 3 sep 2021\nReino nazarí de Granada\nreino nazarí de Granada, también conocido como emirato de Granada o sultanato de Granada,[nota 2]​ fue un Estado musulmán situado en el sur de la península\n33 kB (3670 palabras) - 01:14 25 ago 2021\nRepública de la Nueva Granada\nRepública de la Nueva Granada fue el nombre que recibió la república unitaria creada por las provincias centrales de la Gran Colombia tras la disolución de ésta\n28 kB (2631 palabras) - 19:25 6 sep 2021\nDesastre de la Vega de Granada\nEl desastre de la Vega de Granada,[1]​[2]​ también conocido con el nombre de batalla de Elvira o batalla de Sierra Elvira,[a]​ fue un combate librado\n70 kB (9238 palabras) - 09:03 14 jul 2021\nMelchor Cano (redirección desde Melchor Cano O.P.)\nMelchor Cano O.P. (Tarancón, Cuenca 1509 - Madridejos, Toledo, 30 de septiembre de 1560) fue un fraile dominico, teólogo y obispo español. Su padre, el\n7 kB (657 palabras) - 09:53 16 jul 2021\nArchidiócesis de Granada\nde comunidades del Camino Neocatecumenal. López, Miguel A. (1993). Los arzobispos de Granada: retratos y semblanzas. Granada: Arzobispado de Granada.\n34 kB (1057 palabras) - 04:32 14 mar 2021\nGranada Club de Fútbol\nEl Granada Club de Fútbol es una sociedad anónima deportiva de la ciudad española de Granada. Su accionista mayoritario es Daxian 2009 SL, bajo el control\n175 kB (16 085 palabras) - 05:07 15 sep 2021\nMuhammed IV de Granada\nGranada. Fue enterrado en Málaga el 25 de agosto de 1333. Reino nazarí de Granada A partir del siglo XIV los monarcas nazaríes adoptaron el título de\n10 kB (1004 palabras) - 19:44 11 sep 2021\nPlaza de toros de Granada\nOrdenanzas de la Maestranza de la Ciudad de Granada. Granada: Universidad de Granada. p. 50. ISBN 84-338-3678-1. Molina, Carolina (16 de enero de 2012).\n34 kB (3544 palabras) - 02:31 2 ago 2021\nNuevo Reino de Granada\nEl Nuevo Reino de Granada o Reino de la Nueva Granada fue la denominación otorgada a una entidad territorial, integrante del Imperio español, establecida\n10 kB (660 palabras) - 17:48 6 sep 2021\nIsmaíl I de Granada\nciudad del emirato de Granada, tras la capital, Granada, el puerto principal y la vía de comunicaciones con el exterior.[6]​ El padre de Abu Said, Ismail\n39 kB (5416 palabras) - 19:44 11 sep 2021\nCampaña Libertadora de Nueva Granada\nemprendida por Simón Bolívar y Francisco de Paula Santander a principios de 1819 para liberar la Nueva Granada (actual Colombia) del dominio español. La\n23 kB (2713 palabras) - 00:02 9 sep 2021\nEdicto de Granada\nEl Decreto de la Alhambra o Edicto de Granada fueron en realidad dos decretos, promulgados en la Alhambra (complejo de la ciudad de Granada, Andalucía\n15 kB (2022 palabras) - 00:33 2 sep 2021\nReal Maestranza de Caballería de Granada\nMaestranza de Granada ARIAS DE SAAVEDRA, Inmaculada: La Real Maestranza de Caballería de Granada en el siglo XVIII. Granada: Servicio de Publicaciones\n9 kB (1207 palabras) - 12:01 21 jul 2021\nDomingo Pérez de Granada\nabarca esta D.O.P. destaca la SCA Varaila de Domingo Pérez.[6]​ En el término de Domingo Pérez de Granada se han encontrado a lo largo de los años diferentes\n13 kB (1530 palabras) - 23:33 29 ago 2021\nResultados de proyectos hermanos\nFray Luis de Granada (Retrato)\nVenerable P. Fr. Luis de Granada un Maestro doctísimo de la vida chiristiana. Nació este Siervo de Dios en la Ciudad de Granada el año de 1504. Su cuna fue\nDe Wikisource\nSiempre\n(Universidad de Granada). Revista \"Tonos\" nº 22, enero 2012. Antología de la nueva poesía española. Ed. José Batlló, para El Bardo. Colección de poesía; pp\nDe Wikiquote\nverbo\nsemejanza expresa de Él\". Cabanelas Rodríguez, Darío (2007) Juan de Segovia y el problema islámico. Granada: Universidad de Granada, p. 105 [1] 4 Lingüística\nDe Wikcionario\nEsperanto/Vocabulario/Lugares y países\nVírgenes Británicas Domingo: República Dominicana Dominiko: Dominica Grenado: Granada Gvadelupo: Guadalupe Gvatemalo: Guatemala Haitio: Haití Honduro: Honduras\nDe Wikilibros\nProgramación de Ingeniería Mecánica UPB:Grupo 1410 06\nJuan Felipe Velásquez Granada. Estudiante de Ingeniería Mecánica. I.D. 000152250 Juan Manuel Álvarez García. Estudiante de Ingeniería Mecánica. I.D. 000217062\nDe Wikiversidad\nUribe obtiene cómoda mayoría en las elecciones legislativas de Colombia\ncon Buenaventura (Valle del Cauca). En Anorí, Granada, Cocorná y San Rafael, poblaciones del departamento de Antioquia, los guerrilleros lanzaron amenazas","warc_headers":{"warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-block-digest":"sha1:T334XKDWMJ4INZAJ3TRGT4A3TQMTYJWD","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:ee34b9af-ee3f-42a0-b1df-d37a22b739da>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:df7ad677-419a-4531-a9f1-4005569282b9>","warc-type":"conversion","content-length":"5965","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:08:01Z","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/?search=Granada,%20Juan%20de%20(O.P.)&ns0=1&ns100=1&ns104=1"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.68893147},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.97855836},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9815541},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9956577},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.995211},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.908108},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.82954496},{"label":"es","prob":0.93528956},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99605924},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93655473},{"label":"es","prob":0.994972},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99426746},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94766325},{"label":"es","prob":0.99155927},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9860535},{"label":"es","prob":0.85517496},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.80252457},{"label":"es","prob":0.957316},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96172434},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8153618},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9836034},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9272394},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9636111},{"label":"es","prob":0.91318625},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8386045},{"label":"es","prob":0.93200696},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.85450584},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93392235},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99277157},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9763185},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9769791},{"label":"es","prob":0.97228134},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.82074255},{"label":"eo","prob":0.8069004},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.92379946},{"label":"es","prob":0.8773791},{"label":"es","prob":0.82564837},{"label":"es","prob":0.9816923},{"label":"es","prob":0.82669234}]}}
{"content":"39°45′14″N 6°26′14″O / 39.753838, -6.437345Coordenadas: 39°45′14″N 6°26′14″O / 39.753838, -6.437345\nLongitud\n290 m [incl. enfoques]\nAncho\n6.55-6.80 m\nAltura\nMínimo 12.50 m\nNúmero de vanos\nUnos 18 [incl. salidas de inundación]\nLongitud del vano\n15 m el más largo\nArquitectos\nPosiblemente Apolodoro de Damasco\nTipo\nPuente en arco rebajado\nMaterial\nPiedra, hormigón romano\nUso\nOrnamental, en ruinas\n[editar datos en Wikidata]\nEl puente de Alconétar era un puente romano sobre el río Tajo. Sus restos se encuentran en el municipio de Garrovillas de Alconétar, en Cáceres, España. Es uno de los más antiguos puentes en arco segmentales del mundo, anterior a otros ejemplos como el Puente Zhaozhou en China y el Ponte Vecchio en Europa (ambos aún en uso actualmente). Su construcción se atribuye por algunos al arquitecto del emperador Trajano, Apolodoro de Damasco,[1]​ quien también construyó el puente de Trajano arqueado de madera a principios del siglo II. El Puente de Alconétar está considerado monumento.[2]​\nEl puente fue reubicado respecto a su posición original cuando se construyó la presa de Alcántara.[3]​ Se conservaron dos arcos segmentarios originales, de 6,7 m y 7,2 m de luz, y una proporción de luz respecto a la altura de entre 4 y 5, como ocurría en arcos segmentarios de fecha posterior.[4]​ Hay pruebas a partir de la posición de las pilastras, que pudieron existir aberturas segmentales de hasta 10 metros en la construcción original.\nHay otros puentes en arcos segmentarios romanos como el Ponte San Lorenzo en Padua.\nÍndice\n1 Localización y accesos por carretera\n2 Historia\n3 Reconstrucción y medidas\n4 Notas\n5 Referencias\n6 Para saber más\n7 Véase también\n8 Enlaces externos\nLocalización y accesos por carretera[editar]\nLocalización del puente en la red de carreteras romanas de Hispania.\nEl histórico Puente de Alconétar, que no debería confundirse con el monumental Puente de Alcántara construido río abajo, servía para pasar el Tajo no lejos de la desembocadura del río Almonte, en el corazón de la provincia de Cáceres en la región española de Extremadura.[5]​ La N-630, la A-66 y una línea de ferrocarril, al cruzar el Tajo por allí cerca, hicieron desaparecer la importancia que históricamente había tenido este puente para unir el norte y el sur de España.[5]​ Durante la construcción del embalse de Alcántara en 1970, los restos del puente se movieron de su sitio original a un prado seis kilómetros al norte, cerca de la localidad de Garrovillas de Alconétar.[6]​ Por el contrario, quedan pocos restos de un puente que había cerca de éste, sobre el río Almonte.[7]​\nEn la Antigüedad Clásica, el puente de Alconétar fue parte de la calzada romana Iter ab Emerita Caesaraugustam, más tarde llamada Via de la Plata. Esta importante conexión interior ibérica unía Mérida, la capital provincial, al sur, con los valles del río Alagón, del río Tiétar y del río Tajo al norte, después la parte occidental de la Meseta Central, pasando la ciudad de Salamanca.[8]​ Su final estaba en Astorga al noroeste de España.[1]​ La Vía de la Plata fue una de las cuatro rutas principales establecidas por César Augusto y sus sucesores para el control militar de la península y para facilitar la explotación de las ricas minas de oro y plata españolas.[1]​\nAparte de este puente sobre el Tajo, restos de otros 4 antiguos puentes quedan en la carretera: uno sobre el Albarregas, otro sobre el río Aljucén, un tercero cerca de Cáparra y un cuarto sobre el río Tormes.[9]​ En las colinas que rodeaban el puente de Alconétar, se estableció una mansio romana con el nombre de Turmulus (en español, \"Ad Túrmulos\"), de acuerdo con los intervalos de distancia que había por costumbre entonces.[7]​ Era la cuarta mansio de un total de 16 entre Mérida y Astorga.[10]​\nHistoria[editar]\nLos restos recolocados durante una crecida de agua.\nLa fecha de construcción exacta del puente se desconoce debido a la falta de fuentes literarias y epigráficas.[11]​ Sus arcos rebajados sugieren que se construyó allá por el siglo II, más concretamente durante el reinado de los emperadores Trajano (98–117) o Adriano (117–138), ya que el uso de esta forma de arco era la típica de aquella época. Ambos emperadores nacieron en la provincia Baetica situada al Sur de Hispania y Trajano es conocido por haber ordenado la restauración de la Iter ab Emerita Caesaraugustam cuando llegó al poder.[12]​ Los arcos rebajados fueron a menudo empleados por el arquitecto de la corte de Trajano Apolodoro de Damasco, en obras como el Foro de Trajano y más notablemente en la mayor obra de ingeniería civil de la época, el Puente de Trajano, que descansaba en 20 enormes pilares de hormigón romano y fue usado durante las guerras dacias para mover tropas a través de los más de 1000 m de ancho del río Danubio.[13]​\nSegundo arco del estribo occidental. Su anchura es de 1,20 m.\nLos geógrafos moros no hicieron mención al puente, a pesar de que alabaron el Puente de Alcántara también situado sobre el Tajo.[14]​ Hay algunas evidencias de que una comunidad llamada Alconétar, Alconétara o Alcontra (en árabe: \"puente pequeño\") existió al menos temporalmente —probablemente una referencia indirecta al Puente de Alcántara—.[7]​ También se desconoce por qué al Puente de Alconétar se le llama Puente de Mantible en la lengua vernácula local, una expresión que alude a la leyenda de Carlomagno y sus Doce Paladines.[15]​\nEl puente estuvo probablemente en uso hasta la Reconquista, cuando el Tajo constituyó la frontera entre la Cristiandad y los moros entre el siglo XI y el siglo XIII, y los frecuentes enfrentamientos podrían haber hecho el puente inutilizable.[16]​ De acuerdo con otra teoría, el agua podría haber empezado a erosionar el puente en aquella época.[16]​\nLos arcos 1 y 3, reconstruidos posteriormente.\nEl Puente de Alconétar aparece por primera vez en recopilaciones de 1231 y 1257, en las cuales explícitamente se dice que está en uso.[17]​ Probablemente fue reparado por los Caballeros Templarios que habían tomado el control del puente así como del pueblo.[17]​ Los arcos 1 y 3, ninguno de los cuales son de fabricación romana, se cree que son de este periodo.[17]​ Sobre 1340, sin embargo, el puente estaba aparentemente inutilizable otra vez, de manera que se estableció una barca para cruzar el río, de la cual se vuelve a hablar en referencias posteriores.[17]​ En el sitio de la antigua estación de paso, se hizo una fortaleza en la Edad Media;[18]​ y su torre, construida de spolia romana, hoy en día está sumergida en las aguas del embalse.\nVarios intentos de reabrir el puente en la Edad Moderna fracasaron. En 1553, el arquitecto Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón calculó un coste de 80000 ducados para la reconstrucción del puente sin haber realizado los planos. El proyecto de construcción de Alonso de Covarrubias y Hernán Ruiz de 1560 nunca fue más allá del plano, y lo mismo pasó con otro proyecto entre 1569 y 1580.[8]​\nEn el primer plano, los arcos 1 y 2 del puente romano\nEn el siglo XVIII fracasaron dos intentos de reparar el puente, en 1730 y en los años 1760. Este último plan del ingeniero militar José García Galiano incluía una reconstrucción completa con tres arcos rebajados de vano ancho. El esbozo de planificación muestra que ya en esa época los arcos que quedaban eran limitados en el lado derecho, hecho confirmado por el dibujo de Fernando Rodríguez de 1797 y grabados en el libro de Alexandre de Laborde Voyage pittoresque de l'Espagne algunos años más tarde.[8]​ El esbozo de construcción hecho por Rodríguez (ver dibujo más abajo) muestra el perfil del puente, aumentando uniformemente y dominado por tres arcos centrales en el centro del río. Esos arcos son flanqueados por un noveno arco segmental en los dos lados. La simetría de los arcos sugiere que, en la orilla derecha del puente visto corriente arriba, podría haber habido otro arco segmental en tiempos de los romanos.[19]​\nLa base para el análisis científico moderno del puente fue diseñada por el ingeniero civil Antonio Prieto en su trabajo de 1925, que detalla el estado del puente antes de su traslado en 1970. Aunque se trataba de un intento serio de reconstruir el puente lo más parecido posible al original, el erudito español Durán señala que ligeros cambios en el cuerpo principal no podrían ser evitados en un trabajo tan difícil.[20]​\nEl Puente de Alconétar ha sido clasificado como \"patrimonio histórico\" desde 1931 por las autoridades españolas.[21]​\nReconstrucción y medidas[editar]\nIntento de reconstrucción por Fernando Rodríguez en 1797 (vista corriente arriba). Los restos que aún quedaban por entonces están coloreados en tonos más fuertes.\nMedidas recuperadas de izquierda a derecha (visto corriente arriba):\nParte del puente\nGaliano (ca. 1770)\nRodríguez (1797)\nPrieto (1925)[A. 3]​\nDurán (2004)[A. 4]​\nVano 1.ª salida de agua 6.86 m 7.04 m 7.00 m 6.95 m\nRampa de espesor 10.60 m 11.63 m 12.00 m 14.00 m\nVano 2.ª salida de agua 7.40 m 7.10 m 7.50 m 7.40 m\nRampa de espesor 12.90 m 11.65 m 13.00 m 13.50 m\nVano 1.er arco 7.50 m 7.62 m 7.30 m 7.30 m\nAncho 1.er pilar 5.60 m 4.17 m 4.25 m 4.25 m\nVano 2º arco 9.00 m 8.44 m 8.20 m 8.10 m\nAncho 2º pilar 5.60 m 4.19 m 4.25 m 4.45 m\nVano 3.er arco 9.86 m 8.92 m 8.95 m 8.50 m\nAncho 3.er pilar 5.50 m 4.21 m 4.25 m 4.55 m\nVano 4º arco 10.10 m 10.32 m 10.15 m 10.20 m\nAncho 4º pilar 4.81 m 4.80 m\nVano 5º arco 12.03 m 11.00 m\nAncho 5º pilar 6.21 m\nVano 6º arco 16.72 m 12.00 m\nAncho 6º pilar 6.21 m\nVano 7º arco 8.92 m 13.00 m\nAncho 7º pilar 6.21 m\nVano 8º arco 16.74 m 14.00 m\nAncho 8º pilar 6.21 m\nVano 9º arco 11.93 m 15.00 m\nAncho 9º pilar 4.79 m\nVano 10º arco 10.22 m 14.00 m\nAncho 10º pilar 4.19 m\nVano 11.er arco 8.82 m 13.00 m\nAncho 11º pilar 4.19 m\nVano 12º arco 8.38 m 12.00 m\nAncho 12º pilar 4.19 m\nVano 13.er arco 11.00 m\nAncho 13.er pilar\nVano 14º arco 10.00 m\nAncho 14º pilar\nVano 15º arco 9.30 m\nAncho 15º pilar\nVano 16º arco 9.10 m\nNotas[editar]\n↑ Todas las medidas se refieren al tiempo anterior a la reubicación del puente y son necesariamente fragmentarias debido al estado ruinoso de la estructura.\n↑ Los restos se trasladaron en 1970.\n↑ Estimaciones en cursiva.\n↑ Todos los valores se refieren al puente recolocado.\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ a b c O’Connor, Colin: Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press 1993, ISBN 0-521-39326-4, P. 109\n↑ «Patrimonio Nacional». Archivado desde el original el 5 de julio de 2008. Consultado el 9 de abril de 2009.\n↑ Fernández Troyano, Leonardo, «Bridge Engineering - A Global Perspective», Thomas Telford Publishing, 2003\n↑ «A brief analysis of the Roman bridges of the way La Via de la Plata», Limón, Hortelano & Fernández\n↑ a b Prieto Vives, 1925, p. 147\n↑ O'Connor, 1993, pp. 108f.\n↑ a b c Prieto Vives, 1925, p. 149\n↑ a b c Durán Fuentes, 2004, p. 182\n↑ Durán Fuentes, 2004, pp. 91f.\n↑ Gil Montes, 2004, pp. 9f.\n↑ Prieto Vives, 1925, p. 155\n↑ Prieto Vives, 1925, p. 155; O'Connor, 1993, pp. 108f.\n↑ O'Connor, 1993, pp. 142f.\n↑ Prieto Vives, 1925, pp. 10f.\n↑ Prieto Vives, 1925, p. 158\n↑ a b Prieto Vives, 1925, pp. 155f.; Durán Fuentes, 2004, p. 182\n↑ a b c d Prieto Vives, 1925, pp. 157f.\n↑ Fernández Casado, 1970\n↑ Durán Fuentes, 2004, p. 183\n↑ Durán Fuentes, 2004, pp. 181, 184\n↑ Patrimonio histórico: Bienes culturales protegidos. Consulta de bienes inmuebles. Bien: \"Puente de Alconétar\"\nPara saber más[editar]\nDurán Fuentes, Manuel: «La construcción de puentes romanos en Hispania», Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela 2004, ISBN 978-84-453-3937-4, pp. 181–87\nFernández Casado, Carlos: «Historia del puente en España. Puentes Romanos: Puente de Alconétar», Instituto Eduardo Torroja de la Construcción y del Cemento, Madrid 1970 sin n.º de págs.\nGonzález Limón, Teresa et al.: «A Brief Analysis of the Roman Bridges of the Way 'La via de la Plata'», Lourenço, P. B./Roca, P. (ed.): Historical Constructions, Guimarães 2001, pp. 247–256\nO’Connor, Colin: «Roman Bridges», Cambridge University Press 1993, ISBN 0-521-39326-4, pp. 108f., 171\nPrieto Vives, Antonio: «El puente romano de Alconétar», Archivo Español de Arte y Arqueología, Vol. 2 (mayo/agosto. 1925), pp. 147–158\nVéase también[editar]\nPuente de Limyra\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nWikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Puente de Alconétar.\nAlconétar, el puente de la vergüenza\nEsta obra contiene una traducción derivada de «Alconétar Bridge» de Wikipedia en inglés, publicada por sus editores bajo la Licencia de documentación libre de GNU y la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-CompartirIgual 3.0 Unported.\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q967119\nMultimedia: Alconétar Bridge\nIdentificadores\nWorldCat\nVIAF: 316431757\nPleiades: 257460\nLugares\nAtlas Digital del Imperio Romano: 25496\nPleiades: 257460\nPatrimonio histórico\nBIC: RI-51-0000486\nDatos: Q967119\nMultimedia: Alconétar Bridge\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puente_de_Alconétar&oldid=134132296»\nCategorías:\nPuentes romanos en España\nPuentes de España en ruinas\nPuentes sobre el río Tajo\nPuentes de la provincia de Cáceres\nPuentes de arcos múltiples de piedra en España\nEdificios y estructuras reubicados\nGarrovillas de Alconétar\nArquitectura de España del siglo II\nArquitectura de la Antigua Roma en Extremadura\nMonumentos histórico-artísticos de España declarados en 1931\nBienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Cáceres\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Páginas con enlaces mágicos de ISBN\nWikipedia:Artículos con datos por trasladar a Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos buenos en la Wikipedia en inglés\nWikipedia:Artículos buenos en la Wikipedia en alemán\nWikipedia:Artículos con coordenadas en Wikidata\nWikipedia:Páginas con traducciones del inglés\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BIC\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nFrançais\nहिन्दी\nItaliano\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nاردو\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 20 mar 2021 a las 18:16.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:16:09Z","warc-type":"conversion","warc-identified-content-language":"spa,eng","warc-block-digest":"sha1:TSHYHQOHHG2R4PLAI4Y2DBNYOKNC3B4D","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:7b6720b8-df54-48f8-b8d3-5f67adf828ee>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:2b911dfc-7786-4b72-98bb-f09dfd8b1037>","content-length":"15345","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puente_de_Alcon%C3%A9tar"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.70871},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.82456046},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8123303},{"label":"es","prob":0.9993721},{"label":"es","prob":0.83326787},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9682292},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8006473},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9859745},{"label":"es","prob":0.9774099},{"label":"es","prob":0.95894164},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},{"label":"es","prob":0.9941846},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98907125},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.89484394},{"label":"es","prob":0.9958568},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000495},{"label":"es","prob":0.9313306},{"label":"es","prob":0.97868305},{"label":"es","prob":0.91949856},{"label":"es","prob":0.9765206},{"label":"es","prob":0.98323333},{"label":"es","prob":0.97641915},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9766478},{"label":"es","prob":0.803503},{"label":"es","prob":0.96984994},{"label":"es","prob":0.9918637},{"label":"es","prob":0.87842345},{"label":"es","prob":0.991308},{"label":"es","prob":0.99135804},{"label":"es","prob":0.9598456},{"label":"es","prob":0.9797424},{"label":"es","prob":0.99149257},{"label":"es","prob":0.91579413},{"label":"es","prob":0.9433523},{"label":"es","prob":0.988108},{"label":"es","prob":0.9245908},{"label":"es","prob":0.81130606},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"it","prob":0.80244243},null,{"label":"it","prob":0.80292815},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9810688},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.90010923},{"label":"es","prob":0.9260921},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96865344},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8323347},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.944021},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9604927},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8556928},{"label":"es","prob":0.9556206},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"gl","prob":0.884678},null,null,null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.9412995},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},{"label":"es","prob":0.91603947},{"label":"es","prob":0.9344037},{"label":"es","prob":0.98467976},{"label":"es","prob":0.8652928},{"label":"es","prob":0.8968648},{"label":"es","prob":0.9646155},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9466537},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8781978},{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.9243458},{"label":"es","prob":0.970681},{"label":"es","prob":0.9728929},{"label":"es","prob":0.96185756},{"label":"es","prob":0.94594175},{"label":"es","prob":0.9603682},{"label":"es","prob":0.9012632},{"label":"es","prob":0.9240744},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,null,{"label":"hi","prob":0.883866},null,{"label":"pa","prob":0.9999484},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.9874353},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"El señorío es una institución propia de la Edad Media y la Edad Moderna en España, en cierto modo similar al feudo del Imperio carolingio. Surgió en los reinos cristianos del norte peninsular y se extendió con la Reconquista al resto del territorio, confirmándose e incrementándose (refeudalización) con la Monarquía Hispánica posterior.\nSe trata de una donación hereditaria de tierras y en función del tipo de señorío y en ocasiones también vasallos, incluida la jurisdicción, dada por monarcas a nobles o clérigos como pago por servicios prestados o recompensa a méritos adquiridos, pero por su mera voluntad (merced). Bajo las cortes liberales esto fue suprimido.\nSu pervivencia en el tiempo (hasta el siglo XIX) y su carácter de base económica de la posición social de la nobleza, sobre todo tras perder esta su poder político ante la monarquía, pusieron al señorío en el eje que articulaba los sistemas social, económico y político, por lo que puede considerarse que todos ellos formaban parte de un «régimen señorial» que caracterizó al Antiguo Régimen en España. Fue abolido por la Constitución de 1812.\nÍndice\n1 Señorío territorial\n2 Comienzos de la Reconquista\n3 La Baja Edad Media en Castilla\n4 Los Reyes Católicos: mayorazgo y remensa\n5 El fin del señorío\n6 Véase también\n7 Notas\n8 Bibliografía\n9 Enlaces externos\nSeñorío territorial[editar]\nLa historiografía diferencia dentro del señorío dos categorías: el «señorío territorial» o «señorío solariego», que sería el más similar al feudo; y el «señorío jurisdiccional», en que las prerrogativas del señor son fundamentalmente el cobro de los derechos señoriales de origen político y judicial. Aunque teóricamente esta diferenciación es muy confusa, se dio tanto en la práctica como en la documentación histórica. Cosa lógica, porque la confusión de derechos y jurisdicciones es una de las características del feudalismo. Difícil sería aclarar lo que significaba concretamente ser señor de horca y cuchillo o hasta donde llegaba el ius utendi et abutendi, el ius prime noctis o derecho de pernada, etc. Analizando la exposición de García de Cortázar,[1]​ el señorío territorial vendría a definir el poder de un señor sobre los hombres y tierras que se encuentran bajo su dominio eminente, mientras que el señorío jurisdiccional comportaría un ámbito mayor de dominio jurídico sobre hombres dependientes de otros señores. El señor territorial tiene en teoría una vinculación más estrecha con la tierra, y su forma típica de extraer el excedente es mediante prestaciones de trabajo (la serna, mucho más escasas en Castilla que las corveas francesas), o pagos en especie o dinero (de escasa circulación). De un modo sutil, el señor jurisdiccional tiene en cambio una diferente relación con la tierra (el dominio eminente, quedando al siervo el dominio útil), aunque en el fondo también realice la extracción del excedente mediante una «coerción extraeconómica» (en términos del materialismo histórico). Lo fundamental para el señor es la percepción de la renta de la tierra; las vías de obtenerla eran innumerables, pues mediante un conjunto difuso de derechos señoriales conseguía gravar cualquier movimiento de la producción o aumentos de la prosperidad de los campesinos (derechos de paso, de pontazgo, de portazgo... por la explotación de los bosques, de los ríos... monopolios de molino, de tienda, de taberna...), a lo que hay que añadir los cobros derivados de la jurisdicción (multas, penas de cámara, todo tipo de impuestos cedidos por el rey...).\nPropiamente, el campesino sujeto a señorío territorial sería un siervo sin libertad personal, figura que en los reinos hispánicos medievales se usa, pero no generalizadamente, y el que solo lo está a un señorío jurisdiccional es un vasallo del señor, al igual que un noble lo es de otro o del rey. En España no hubo ningún momento espectacular de abolición de la servidumbre (solo posible en circunstancias en las que la servidumbre se aplicó tardíamente y ya en la Edad Moderna, como ocurrió en el Este de Europa, particularmente en la Rusia zarista). La condición social de los campesinos en la Alta Edad Media no es que fuera mejor, siempre en los límites de la subsistencia y sometidos a la superioridad social de los señores, pero pasó fluidamente y con el paso del tiempo a situaciones de menor sujeción personal.\nComienzos de la Reconquista[editar]\nEn un principio la Reconquista, sobre todo en Castilla, no permitió que nobles o eclesiásticos acumulasen tanto poder territorial como lo habían hecho en el Imperio carolingio. Las causas son, en primer lugar, que los territorios de frontera permitieron una mayor libertad campesina, empezando por el derecho de ocupación de la tierra abandonada (la presura); en segundo lugar, que la figura del rey mantuvo más poder que al otro lado de los Pirineos.\nFiguras como la behetría, que permite a los siervos elegir señor (ver su extensión en el Becerro de las Behetrías de Castilla de aproximadamente 1352) o la del caballero villano, campesino libre capaz de mantener armas y caballo de guerra, son propios de esos primeros siglos. Una vez alejada la frontera, sí van cayendo dentro del régimen señorial, al pasar a depender de un señor noble o eclesiástico.\nEmpiezan a utilizarse los conceptos de señorío como territorio bajo jurisdicción de un noble laico (señorío laico) o eclesiástico (señorío eclesiástico). El término abadengo se aplicaba al señorío en que es un monasterio el señor, y realengo al territorio bajo jurisdicción directa del rey, aunque no sin intermediarios. De hecho, la principal parte del realengo serían las ciudades y villas privilegiadas con fueros o cartas pueblas, con Comunidades de villa y tierra y alfoces, que actuaban como auténticos señoríos colectivos en su tierra o alfoz. Algunos autores han calificado a las ciudades como «islas en un océano feudal», pero son islas que mantienen sumergido a buena parte del campo al igual que el resto de señoríos. Solo en el Reino de Aragón, en las comunidades de aldeas, tras liberarse del señorío de la ciudad bajo la que inicialmente están sometidas, se puede considerar que existe libertad de gestión para los ciudadanos que residen en ellas.\nLa Baja Edad Media en Castilla[editar]\nLa Baja Edad Media representó un aumento de los señoríos jurisdiccionales, sobre todo con la nueva dinastía Trastámara, cuyo primer rey, Enrique II, fue motejado el de las mercedes por la necesidad que tuvo de recompensar a la alta nobleza su apoyo en la guerra civil contra su hermano Pedro I. Muchísimos pueblos y villas que antes eran de realengo pasan así a ser de señorío, lo que no quiere decir que el señor alcance la propiedad ni siquiera el dominio eminente sobre las tierras, sino el conjunto de derechos señoriales, que en la práctica son el derecho a percibir buena parte del excedente de la producción, vía todo tipo de impuestos. Dependiendo de la habilidad y determinación para cobrarlos y de la resistencia encontrada en el proceso, esos derechos serían más o menos opresivos para los campesinos, lo que condujo en ocasiones a revueltas. La crisis demográfica producida por la Peste de 1348 también influyó en el proceso. Podría hablarse de una refeudalización. Fue el periodo de las principales revueltas antiseñoriales, como las Guerras Irmandiñas en Galicia o la Guerra de los Payeses de Remensa en Cataluña.\nLos Reyes Católicos: mayorazgo y remensa[editar]\nDurante el reinado de los Reyes Católicos, tras las guerras civiles de Castilla y las guerras de los payeses de remensa en la Corona de Aragón, se produce la consolidación del régimen señorial en toda la Península, siendo muy distinta la suerte de unos y de otros, pues la alta nobleza castellana quedó muy favorecida, consintiendo los Reyes en la perpetuación a través del mayorazgo de grandes extensiones de señoríos jurisdiccionales. En Cataluña especialmente, los campesinos (payeses de remensa) tras la Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe quedarán en una situación muy favorable, a través de censos enfitéuticos que con el tiempo les hacen pagar cantidades cada vez menores por la renta de sus tierras.\nDurante todo el periodo siguiente, la Edad Moderna, como se ha definido al comienzo, el señorío puede considerarse la forma peculiar del modo de producción feudal en la formación económico social del Antiguo Régimen en España.[2]​\nLos cambios más significativos que se produjeron en el periodo fueron un nuevo proceso de refeudalización en torno al siglo XVII, con la compra de jurisdicciones debida a los apuros hacendísticos del rey, que permitió una nueva clase de señores, muchos de ellos de extracción burguesa, que aspiraban también a la propiedad de la tierra en un contexto de despoblación, formando lo que se llamaba cotos redondos. Hasta qué punto el régimen señorial se vivía en la práctica puede verse ilustrado por algunos documentos, como el Memorial de Valverde.[3]​\nEl fin del señorío[editar]\nArtículo principal: Abolición de los señoríos en España\nSeñoríos en Andalucía en el siglo XVIII.\nRealengo Señoríos nobiliarios Señoríos eclesiásticos Señoríos de las órdenes militares Nuevas Poblaciones.\nLa diferenciación entre un tipo de señorío y otro fue vital cuando la abolición de los señoríos jurisdiccionales a partir de las Cortes de Cádiz dejó en manos de los tribunales de justicia la determinación de en qué casos los antiguos señores podían conservar su dominio eminente, convertido en plena propiedad, tal como se entiende en el sistema capitalista. En el feudalismo o régimen señorial, el concepto de propiedad sería anacrónico, pues todos (señores y campesinos) compartían algún tipo de derecho sobre la tierra.\nEn España no se realizó una revolución campesina como la que en Francia quemó castillos y archivos señoriales, desposeyendo a la nobleza de sus propiedades (o incluso conduciéndola a la guillotina o el exilio). La nueva clase dominante en el campo español bajo el régimen liberal estaba compuesta por las familias aristocráticas tradicionales que consiguieron conservar un patrimonio ya no protegido por el mayorazgo, aliadas a una burguesía emergente dispuesta a invertir en la Desamortización, representadas políticamente por el partido liberal moderado.\nEn la mitad norte de España, los campesinos consiguieron asentarse como propietarios de pequeñas explotaciones minifundistas (a veces mayores, como en Cataluña); en la mitad sur, fueron sobre todo grandes masas de jornaleros trabajando en los latifundios.[4]​\nNo obstante existen en la actualidad señoríos, no jurisdiccionales y con consideración de títulos del Reino: el de la Casa de Lazcano, el de la Casa de Rubianes y el de Meirás, con grandeza de España; el de Alconchel, la Higuera de Vargas, el de Sonseca, el de Balaguer (vinculado a la princesa de Gerona), el de Molina y de Vizcaya (pertenecientes ambos históricamente a la Corona Española) y los del Solar de Tejada y el Solar de Valdeosera (ambos señoríos de divisa).\nVéase también[editar]\nAnexo:Señoríos de España\nFeudalismo en España\nRenta feudal\nIqtá\nCabrevar\nCabrevación\nNotas[editar]\n↑ García de Cortázar, J. A. (2002). Señores, siervos y vasallos en la Europa altomedieval (Gobierno de Navarra edición). Pamplona: Señores, siervos y vasallos en la Alta Edad Media, XXVIII Semana de Estudios Medievales de Estella.\n↑ Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio (El Antiguo Régimen: Los Reyes Católicos. Los Austrias) y Anes, Gonzalo (El Antiguo Régimen: Los Borbones), en Antonio Dominguez Ortiz (dir.) (4ª ed.: 1979) Historia de España Alfaguara, Madrid, Alianza.\n↑ Alfaro, Ángel Luis (1990), El Memorial de Valverde, un texto inédito del siglo XVII, Madrid: Anuario de Historia del Derecho Español nº 60, ISSN 0304-4319.\n↑ Artola, Miguel (La burguesía revolucionaria) y Martínez Cuadrado, Miguel (La burguesía conservadora), en Antonio Domínguez Ortiz (dir.) (3ª ed.: 1976) Historia de España Alfaguara, Madrid, Alianza.\nBibliografía[editar]\nValdeón, Julio; Salrach, José María; Zabalo, Javier (1987). Feudalismo y consolidación de los pueblos hispánicos. Barcelona Labor. ISBN 84-335-9424-9.\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nBibliografía sobre señoríos y feudalismo, en Liceus\nGalicia no Antiguo Réximen (contiene mapas de los señoríos jurisdiccionales según el Censo de Floridablanca).\nLa posesión de la tierra a comienzos del siglo XVII (Aragón, contiene mapa).\nFuentes para el Estudio del señorío de Aragón\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q1550557\nMultimedia: Lordships\nIdentificadores\nGND: 4128066-0\nNDL: 00572006\nMicrosoft Academic: 4988305\nDiccionarios y enciclopedias\nHDS: 008973\nBritannica: url\nDatos: Q1550557\nMultimedia: Lordships\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Señorío&oldid=137841553»\nCategorías:\nSeñoríos de España\nAntiguo Régimen\nAntiguo Régimen en España\nHistoria del derecho\nHistoria económica medieval de España\nHistoria económica moderna de España\nTítulos nobiliarios\nFeudalismo\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Microsoft Academic\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nAragonés\nالعربية\nAsturianu\nCatalà\nČeština\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nGalego\nעברית\nՀայերեն\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n日本語\nქართული\n한국어\nLatina\nLingua Franca Nova\nNederlands\nOccitan\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nSimple English\nShqip\nSvenska\nไทย\nTagalog\nУкраїнська\n中文\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 22 ago 2021 a las 22:51.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:GR5UQ3JIDYADU6PIYOAV5UFHLTIXYEGO","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:04:08Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:ec4f6435-616f-466e-b30a-c6b690217c70>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:8e4e6ec5-f238-45e1-b749-841252f8c8c5>","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%B1or%C3%ADo_territorial","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-type":"conversion","content-length":"14837"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.84556824},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.97288495},{"label":"es","prob":0.9931948},{"label":"es","prob":0.9861736},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81742543},{"label":"es","prob":0.8221122},{"label":"es","prob":0.97439265},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000495},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8867786},{"label":"es","prob":0.93300074},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98298866},{"label":"es","prob":0.97610444},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9753522},{"label":"es","prob":0.9324839},{"label":"es","prob":0.98076785},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99248123},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96836525},{"label":"es","prob":0.9835851},{"label":"es","prob":0.9931712},{"label":"es","prob":0.90041304},{"label":"es","prob":0.99331427},{"label":"es","prob":0.97982985},{"label":"es","prob":0.92693543},{"label":"es","prob":0.99145967},{"label":"es","prob":0.9845046},{"label":"es","prob":0.9789263},{"label":"es","prob":0.92997754},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},{"label":"es","prob":0.9983285},{"label":"es","prob":0.83990145},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.80123484},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.836697},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.85787606},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9456891},{"label":"es","prob":0.9549188},{"label":"es","prob":0.96873695},{"label":"es","prob":0.97721225},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},{"label":"es","prob":0.9494338},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8597532},{"label":"es","prob":0.9356217},{"label":"es","prob":0.8317368},{"label":"es","prob":0.86209655},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.91860306},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},null,null,null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,null,null,{"label":"fi","prob":0.9453278},null,null,null,{"label":"hy","prob":1.00008},{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},null,{"label":"ja","prob":1.0000484},{"label":"ka","prob":0.9957717},{"label":"ko","prob":1.00007},null,null,{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},{"label":"ro","prob":0.99815744},null,null,null,{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},{"label":"th","prob":1.00008},null,{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},{"label":"zh","prob":0.81862706},{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.9848937},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"Hola, Garcia90660. Se ha revisado de nuevo la página «Línea 405 (Buenos Aires)» y esta cumple con los criterios de borrado rápido, por lo que se ha marcado con la plantilla {{Destruir}} para que sea borrada de inmediato por un bibliotecario. Los motivos son los siguientes:\nG9: La página fue revisada y borrada con anterioridad, y esta aún no cumple con los criterios mínimos para permanecer en Wikipedia. Por favor, detente y no vuelvas a crear la página, a menos que ya no viole políticas de Wikipedia. Si insistes en crearlo, tu acción será considerada vandalismo (lo que nos obligará a bloquear tu cuenta).\nA4: Página sin interés enciclopédico. Recuerda que Wikipedia no es una colección de información sin criterio.\nPara crear un artículo enciclopédico con más garantías de éxito, te sugerimos que utilices el asistente para la creación de artículos. Si creaste la página con la finalidad de hacer pruebas, por favor, utiliza nuestra zona de pruebas pública. Si eres un usuario registrado, también puedes usar tu taller de pruebas personal.\nGracias por tu comprensión. LORDZRAWN ¿Hablamos? 19:08 26 dic 2020 (UTC)[responder]\nVoy a dejar de colaborar con Wikipedia[editar]\nDebido a que dan respuestas arbitrarias que carecen de rigor y de unidad de criterio, decido dejar de colaborar con Wikipedia.\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usuario_discusión:Garcia90660&oldid=131969792»\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nPágina del usuario\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nAñadir tema\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nContribuciones del usuario\nRegistros\nVer los grupos del usuario\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros idiomas\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 26 dic 2020 a las 20:22.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:9c960db2-f7d3-4b0a-87dd-4e85baeb58c9>","content-length":"2505","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:10:26Z","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuario_discusi%C3%B3n:Garcia90660","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:dcaf8bf8-b4d2-46b3-98f9-2ad998396f6a>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:GDK7C6KMVMPJGNEQE2HBOZA2BMC45FI3"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.8866406},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.9688758},{"label":"es","prob":0.9700735},{"label":"es","prob":0.97693884},{"label":"es","prob":0.99467796},{"label":"es","prob":0.9455955},{"label":"es","prob":0.9177252},{"label":"es","prob":0.97285765},{"label":"es","prob":0.8830479},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":0.99484015},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.951615},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":0.9718159},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9953238},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},{"label":"es","prob":0.9765367},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"En náhuatl Aztlán (de Aztatlan) ˈast͡ɬaːn (?·i) (en náhuatl: 'aztatl' ‘\"garzas\", y tlan, \"locativo\", \"lugar de las garzas\"’) es un sitio mítico, nombrado en varias fuentes de origen novohispano y anteriores, del que provienen los aztecas. Aztlán suele ser identificado con una isla.\nSu probable existencia y su localización han generado debate entre los investigadores, aunque la tesis más aceptada es que se trata de una representación simbólica de la misma México-Tenochtitlan , actualmente Ciudad de México, no obstante, según las referencias de las fuentes más confiables como Chimalpáhín, Ixtlilxochitl, Cristóbal del Castillo o incluso Tezozomoc, concuerdan en situarla más allá de Xalisco, diferenciando este sitio de Chicomoztoc y Huey Colhuacan, la geografía y otros acontecimientos relatados en la migración de los mexicas, dan pie a creer su veracidad, puesto que muchos lugares descritos hoy día son localizables, por ejemplo Huey Colhuacan, descrita por los nativos a Nuño de Guzmán durante sus expediciones[1]​\nEn la versión de Cristóbal del Castillo,[2]​ escrita a fines del siglo XVI, se menciona que las aguas que rodeaban Aztlán tenían como nombre Metztliapan (\"lago de la Luna\"), concordando con lo referido por Chimalpáhín[3]​ en sus Memoriales, ambos concuerdan en situar este sitio en las últimas tierras de Xalisco, concordando con el actual Nayarit, en la isla llamada Mexcaltitán (Mexi \"mexitin\", calli \"casa\", tlan \"locativo\" \"tierra hogar de los mexitin\" ), cabe recordar que esta isla estaba sujeta al señorío de Aztatlan, las tiranías de uno de estos tlahtoques aztecas es lo que obliga a los mexitin a salir de su territorio, dirigidos por Chalchiuhtlatonac, quien moriría en Huey Colhuacan, uniéndose a Tetzauhteotl yaotequihua en la figura de Huitzilopochtli, en la isla de Mexcaltitan también se han encontrado petrograbados con garzas, y uno exhibido en el Museo del Origen, situado en la isla, muestra una garza montada sobre una serpiente.\nLa palabra aztecatl, deriva de la palabra aztateca, que significa 'procedente de Aztatlán'.\nÍndice\n1 Etimología\n2 Usos modernos\n3 Véase también\n4 Referencias\n5 Enlaces externos\nEtimología[editar]\nEl significado de la palabra es \"lugar de la blancura\" o \"lugar de las garzas\" (del náhuatl aztatl (\"garza\") y tlan (\"Lugar\"). Durante la conquista española de México, la historia de Aztlán ganó importancia y fue divulgada por fray Diego Durán (1581) y por otros como una clase de paraíso o Edén, libre de enfermedad y de muerte, que existió en alguna parte en el norte lejano. Estas historias ayudaron a iniciar expediciones de los españoles en lo que ahora es el suroeste de los Estados Unidos; las variadas descripciones de Aztlán son contradictorias. Mientras que algunas leyendas lo describen como un paraíso, el Códice Aubin dice que era un lugar presa de una élite tirana llamada azteca-chicomoztoca.\nUsos modernos[editar]\nAztlán da su nombre a varios movimientos políticos hispanoamericanos en los Estados Unidos, tales como el consejo revolucionario y gobierno provisional de Aztlán y de MEChA, también conocido como Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán. En esta conexión, puede referir a menudo a ambiciones irredentistas de independencia o unión con México para los estados al sudoeste de los Estados Unidos que México controló antes del Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo en 1848.\nEl Centro Multidisciplinario de Artes AZTLAN A.C., formado en marzo del 2014 en Tepexpan, estado de México, es un grupo formado por los fundadores de la Banda de Música Aztlan, exponentes del movimiento de las Marching Bands Mexicanas.\nEl cineasta mexicano Juan Mora Catlett dirigió a finales de la década de 1980 una película hablada completamente en náhuatl llamada Retorno a Aztlán, patrocinada por la Beca Guggenheim.\nAztlán es utilizado por Max Brooks en su novela Guerra mundial Z cuando Todd Wainio relata la campaña “El camino a Nueva York”, que abarca desde Canadá hasta Aztlán (México antes de la guerra).\nAztlán otorga su nombre al documental realizado en 2009 por la chilena Carolina Adriazola, que retrata el drama de la vida de un travesti junto a un transexual. El nombre hace alusión al espacio de soledad y carencia tanto material como social de dos personas que resultan excéntricas al marco de lo establecido.\nEn la novela \"Carlota y Maximiliano: la dinastía de los Habsburgo en México\", escrita por Adam J. Oderoll, en una realidad alternativa donde el imperio se impuso a la república juarista y México es una potencia mundial gobernada aún en esta época por los Habsburgo, la capital del país se llama Aztlán.\nEn el álbum musical “Aztlán” y canción homónima del mismo disco, de la banda Zoé\nEn el álbum Moctezuma de la banda Mexicana Porter hace alusión a Aztlán en la canción \"La China\"\nEl Centro Cultural de Psicología, Filosofía y Humanidades Aztlan, es una Asociación Civil inscripta en la I.G.J., bajo el N.º 748 fue fundada por el Prof. León Azulay, filósofo, quien se ha dedicado a la enseñanza desde hace más de cincuenta años. Frente a la crisis y decadencia de las antiguas instituciones educativas, ha desarrollado el novedoso Método Aztlan®, el cual responde a un nuevo y moderno paradigma educativo y cultural.\nVéase también[editar]\nMexcaltitán\nTenochtitlan\nVoz de Aztlán\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ Sauer Carl, Aztátlan, México, Siglo XXI editores, 1998.\n↑ Castillo Cristóbal del, Historia de la venida de los mexicanos y de otros pueblos e historia de la conquista, Traducción y estudio introductorio, Navarrete Linares Federico, México, Cien de México, 2001, 180 pp.\n↑ Chimalpáhin Domingo, Las ocho relaciones y el memorial de Colhuacan, Paleografía y traducción Rafael Tena, México, Cien de México, 1998, 435 pp.\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nEl mito de Mexcaltitlán como Aztlán\nMuseo Nacional de Antropología (México)\nAztlan, de Carolina Adriazola en Cinechile\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q740961\nMultimedia: Aztlan\nIdentificadores\nWorldCat\nVIAF: 9144648140063139804\nBNE: XX5420666\nBNF: 14486869p (data)\nGND: 4311289-4\nLCCN: sh91003473\nSUDOC: 078600812\nDatos: Q740961\nMultimedia: Aztlan\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aztlán&oldid=135686962»\nCategorías:\nIslas míticas\nLugares de la mitología mexica\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos que necesitan referencias\nWikipedia:Referenciar mitología\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNE\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNF\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nአማርኛ\nالعربية\nCatalà\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nFrysk\nGalego\nHrvatski\nMagyar\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n日本語\nქართული\nLietuvių\nМакедонски\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nSlovenčina\nТатарча/tatarça\nУкраїнська\n中文\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 20 may 2021 a las 15:09.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:4167d307-c038-49e2-a3f8-cf3ea01fef9d>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:09:56Z","content-length":"8184","warc-block-digest":"sha1:3NBWW3B25Y355KJSO22AN2CWQXQ7AFCY","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztl%C3%A1n","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:aafd864f-7743-41f4-ba78-0951bcf23758>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.81057847},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.9497064},{"label":"es","prob":0.9787966},{"label":"es","prob":0.9535378},null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},{"label":"es","prob":0.9785499},{"label":"es","prob":0.80839056},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000495},{"label":"es","prob":0.8985311},{"label":"es","prob":0.93243986},{"label":"es","prob":0.8367034},{"label":"es","prob":0.9809954},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97338754},{"label":"es","prob":0.8947717},{"label":"es","prob":0.9194653},{"label":"es","prob":0.9385681},{"label":"es","prob":0.9689037},{"label":"es","prob":0.9752251},{"label":"es","prob":0.9789204},{"label":"es","prob":0.9890422},{"label":"es","prob":0.98683095},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8066832},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8994136},{"label":"es","prob":0.90084505},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9584425},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},{"label":"es","prob":0.95954126},{"label":"es","prob":0.9737696},{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.9652225},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9012632},{"label":"es","prob":0.91620296},{"label":"es","prob":0.9212842},{"label":"es","prob":0.91860306},{"label":"es","prob":0.9298159},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},{"label":"am","prob":0.93981636},null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,null,{"label":"fi","prob":0.9453278},null,{"label":"fy","prob":0.99895954},null,{"label":"hr","prob":0.9386292},null,{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},null,{"label":"ja","prob":1.0000484},{"label":"ka","prob":0.9957717},{"label":"lt","prob":1.0000594},{"label":"mk","prob":0.97717184},{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},{"label":"ro","prob":0.99815744},null,null,null,null,{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},{"label":"zh","prob":0.81862706},{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.98814553},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"21°56′32″N 100°00′39″O / 21.942222222222, -100.01083333333Coordenadas: 21°56′32″N 100°00′39″O / 21.942222222222, -100.01083333333\nEntidad\nLocalidad\n• País\nMéxico\n• Estado\nSan Luis Potosí\n• Municipio\nCiudad Fernández\nAltitud\n• Media\n998 m s. n. m.\nPoblación (2010)\n• Total\n32 006 hab.[1]​\nIDH (2015)\n0.719[2]​ – Alto\nHuso horario\nTiempo del Centro (UTC -6)\n• en verano\nUTC -5\nCódigo INEGI\n240110000[3]​[4]​\n[editar datos en Wikidata]\nCiudad Fernández, ciudad mexicana que se encuentra en el estado de San Luis Potosí y cabecera del municipio del mismo nombre. Tiene un clima cálido y seco. Sus habitantes cultivan maíz, frijol (judía), caña de azúcar y naranja, y crían ganado porcino, bovino, ovino, caprino y equino. Se explotan sus bosques de pinos y encinares. Desde el punto de vista turístico cabe mencionar la plaza Central, la parroquia, la capilla del Refugio, los ojos de Agua, La Taza de aguas termales, La Salada y San Juan, así como las ruinas prehispánicas. Los españoles solicitaron la fundación de la villa al marqués de Gelves, quien la autorizó en 1624, denominándola Dulce Nombre de Jesús; posteriormente, en 1731, cambió su nombre por el de Santa Elena. En 1828, adquirió la categoría de ciudad y su nombre actual, en honor al general Zenón Fernández que era originario del lugar. Población (2015), 45.385 habitantes.\nÍndice\n1 Historia\n2 Geografía\n3 Gobierno y administración\n4 Economía\n5 Medios de comunicación\n6 Cultura\n7 Referencias\nHistoria[editar]\nEl sitio donde hoy se encuentra Ciudad Fernández es el mismo lugar donde en 1607 entran a pie a la comarca de Río Verde fray Bautista de Mollinedo y Fray Cárdenas. El lugar era tierra fértil y causó admiración en los religiosos quienes llegaron para impartir doctrina a los aborígenes de ese lugar. Estos naturales comían raíces y frutas silvestres a pesar de abundar pescados en el río verde, vivían en grutas y peñascos.\nLa fundación de la Villa de Santa Elena es un tema de discusión, ya que no se ha podido esclarecer la fecha exacta de este acontecimiento que se dice fue alrededor del año 1757. En esta época los nativos del pueblo de Santa Catarina solicitaron la expulsión de los españoles que vivían en su pueblo, lo cual se resolvió mediante una cédula real fechada el 14 de marzo de 1607: \"Salieran de dicho pueblo, los españoles mestizos, mulatos y otras castas que en él estaban avecindadas\" en atención a una ley antigua que prohibía que los españoles vivieran en pueblos indios.\nLos españoles abandonaron el pueblo de Santa Catarina y formaron una villa, dando argumento a la legalidad de la fundación de la misma, la cual fue solicitada originalmente por Juan Nieto Tellez en 1667. Don Juan Antonio Trancoso, capitán protector de esa frontera, mandó un memorándum al virrey Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimentel, Marqués de Gelves, solicitando la erección de una villa de españoles cercana al pueblo de Santa Catarina, aduciendo varios ahorros y otras alternativas que ayudarían al mejor subordinamiento de la zona, así como su protección.\nEn diciembre de 1693 pasó al Rioverde Don José de Osario para tomar todos los datos y pareceres a religiosos, dueños de haciendas e indios del lugar. Se acordó estabalecer la fundación en un paraje llamado Santa Elena que se hallaba en un ojo de agua dulce, conocido como El Ojito. Con esta información, don Gaspar de la Cerda, Virrey de la Nueva España, concedió la licencia para la fundación de dicho pueblo, expidiendo el mandamiento real el 9 de enero de 1694.\nFue hasta el 15 de febrero de 1710 cuando los vecinos españoles se presentaron ante el general don Sebastián de Olori, alcalde mayor de la ciudad de San Luis Potosí, mostrando el testimonio del real título de la erección de la Villa de Santa Elena. Fue don Andrés de Argandoña, alguacil mayor, quien dio posesión de las tierras que la provisión les concedía, demarcando las 600 varas del recinto de Santa Elena y de ahí una legua por el norte, sur y poniente, nada por el oriente a causa de estar el pueblo de Rioverde. A pesar de eso, no poseyeron las tierras hacia el norte por invasión de los dueños que se las apropiarion, siendo restituidas hasta 1758.\nEsta villa fue llamada posteriormente Dulce Nombre de Jesús, a petición de los vecinos de Santa Elena al virrey don Juan de Acuña, marqués de Casa Fuerte, en el año de 1731, Se concedió un nuevo repartimiento a los vecinos, a la merced de la laguna La Vieja (La Media Luna) y fue en ese año cuando dejó de llamarse Villa de Santa Elena y en adelante se llamó Dulce Nombre de Jesús. En algunos documentos se cita indistintamente, pero predomina el de Villa de Santa Elena.\nEn 1828 vuelve a cambiar su nombre por el de Ciudad Fernández en honor a un hijo ilustre de este lugar que luchó en la Independencia de México, General Zenón Fernández.\nGeografía[editar]\nUbicación: se localiza a 133 km de la ciudad de San Luis Potosí. Colinda al norte, sur y este con el municipio de Rioverde, al oeste con el de San Nicolas Tolentino y al sureste con el de Santa María del Río. Está situado en 21º 56' 32\" de latitud norte y 100º 00' 39\" de longitud oeste, a 980 msnm.\nSuperficie: 449,99 km² que es el 0,74% con relación al total del estado.\nVías de acceso: se cuenta con una red caminera de 145,3 km de longitud, de los cuales 64,7 km son de carreteras federales, 40,3 son alimentadores estatales y 40,3 km de caminos rurales. Se puede acceder a este municipio por la carretera federal 70 \"Tampico-Barra de Navidad\", por el camino de Cerritos y por la Supercarretera.\nClima: se considera cálido, ya que la media anual es de 21,6 °C, con temperaturas máximas de 43 °C y mínimas de 2 °C. De marzo a octubre son los meses más cálidos y el periodo más frío es de noviembre a febrero. La precipitación total anual es en promedio de 562,1 mm, con lluvias principalmente en los meses de junio a noviembre.\nGobierno y administración[editar]\nEstá integrado por 33 localidades: 1 ciudad, 13 ejidos y 19 rancherías. Destacando Ciudad Fernández y anexos (Llanitos, Arroyo Hondo, Cruz del Mezquite, La Reforma, Atotonilco, Labor Vieja) y El Refugio (Callejones). El ayuntamiento está integrado por 8 integrantes de cabildo, incluyendo el presidente municipal, 6 regidores y un síndico. Se tienen 14 comisiones, en razón de que los regidores tienen 2 o más comisiones. Se tienen 25 jueces auxiliares repartidos en las comunidades y ejidos; este puesto es gratuito, solo deben ser potosinos y vecino del lugar saber leer y escribir. Pertenece al tercer distrito federal electoral y al décimo distrito local electoral.\nEconomía[editar]\nEn este municipio se produce el tomate\nExisten 506 establecimientos que ayudan a fomentar la principal actividad terciaria, con bienes de consumo inmediato; alimentos, ropa, calzado, refacciones y muebles, en la zona urbana; además en la zona rural existen tiendas campesinas y bodegas. existen algunos hoteles y moteles por lo q se cuenta con un amplio hospedaje.\nAgricultura. Se produce: garbanzo, frijol, maíz, sorgo, girasol, jitomate, naranja, nogal, mandarina, alfalfa, chile serrano, cacahuate y hortalizas.\nGanadería: aves 18.568 caprino 5.489 bovino 5.327 porcino 3.845 ovino 997 colmenas 2100 que son el número de ganado explotado por orden de importancia en 1999.\nDentro de la ganadería, en su rama de especies menores, el Municipio de Cd. Fernández, cuenta con 2,100 colmenas que producen alrededor de 63 toneladas de miel de azahar de naranjo y de mezquite, siendo el principal destino de exportación, Alemania. Existe una Asociación de Apicultores que a su vez pertenecen al Comité de Productores Apícolas del Estado de San Luis Potosí.\nSilvicultura Se explotan productos maderables como mezquite y huizache. Hasta 1996 la explotación maderil fue el 0,8% del total de la explotación del estado.\nMinería: existen recursos minerales todavía no explotados como son: estaño, yeso, mercurio, azufre, mármol y fluorita.\nMedios de comunicación[editar]\nExisten 2 oficinas administradoras de correo y telégrafo. Cuenta con 2 estaciones repetidoras de microondas (radiodifusoras). Debido a la cercanía con el municipio de Río Verde, existen varias rutas de taxis que llevan a la población de un lugar a otro, también cuenta con servicio de teléfono e Internet provisto desde el municipio de Río Verde, así como de telefonía celular.\nCultura[editar]\nLos tamales son comunes en este lugar.\nCiudad Fernández cuenta conmonumentos arquitectónicos como la iglesia del Dulce Nombre de Jesús, que se encuentra en la cabecera municipal, y la Plaza Principal que es una de las más viejas y bellas del estado de San Luis Potosí, recientemente remodelada, contando con antiquísimos árboles que se calculan con varios cientos de años de existencia. Al interior de municipio en el Ejido del Refugio se localiza la capilla del mismo nombre construida en el siglo XVIII. También cuenta con innumerables molinos.\nTradiciones: del 1º al 4 de enero se celebra la fiesta religiosa del Dulce Nombre de Jesús. Así como también se celebra la FERERE (Feria Regional de El Refugio) del 26 de junio al 4 de julio en el ejido de El Refugio.\nGastronomía: Enchiladas fernandenses, Barbacoa, Asado, Chorizo, Tamales, Cecina, Gorditas de horno, Migadas, Aguamiel.\nMonumentos históricos: Como monumento arquitectónico, Ciudad Fernández cuenta con la Capilla El Refugio, construida en el siglo XVIII. Es característica su torre inclinada.\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2010). «Principales resultados por localidad 2010 (ITER)».\n↑ Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD). «Informe de Desarrollo Humano Municipal 2010-2015. Base de datos». Consultado el 22 de agosto de 2021.\n↑ Catálogo de Claves de Entidades Federativas y Municipios.\n↑ Catálogo de claves de localidades (formato XLS comprimido).\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q2651364\nMultimedia: Ciudad Fernández Municipality\nLugares\nOSM: 5605665\nDatos: Q2651364\nMultimedia: Ciudad Fernández Municipality\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciudad_Fernández&oldid=137844921»\nCategoría:\nLocalidades del estado de San Luis Potosí\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos con datos por trasladar a Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos con ficha sin actualizar\nWikipedia:Artículos sin imagen en entidad subnacional\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Relación OSM\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nCebuano\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEuskara\nItaliano\nPolski\nPortuguês\nРусский\nScots\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nTiếng Việt\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 23 ago 2021 a las 01:58.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:32:13Z","warc-block-digest":"sha1:KQ3NJJAHKNOIYNUQFKYKZFEJFUHS3T73","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"11846","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciudad_Fern%C3%A1ndez","warc-type":"conversion","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:ee460275-6ade-4862-837d-87e2f5c0fbc0>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:cb125fa8-9839-4960-969e-c1be1136f6db>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.8379102},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99894375},{"label":"es","prob":0.98282284},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.85094905},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9767675},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9643979},{"label":"es","prob":0.9809256},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9562139},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8938578},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987598},{"label":"es","prob":0.9909772},{"label":"es","prob":0.97693276},{"label":"es","prob":0.9836494},{"label":"es","prob":0.97855365},{"label":"es","prob":0.9866072},{"label":"es","prob":0.98416466},{"label":"es","prob":0.8525939},{"label":"es","prob":0.9767991},{"label":"es","prob":0.9765673},{"label":"es","prob":0.9488978},{"label":"es","prob":0.99342513},{"label":"es","prob":0.9435659},{"label":"es","prob":0.9285661},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9532698},{"label":"es","prob":0.94400823},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8498866},{"label":"es","prob":0.9447051},{"label":"es","prob":0.9943104},{"label":"es","prob":0.93898726},{"label":"es","prob":0.9090944},{"label":"es","prob":0.9889896},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.91743976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9834934},{"label":"es","prob":0.983847},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.92038804},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9597955},{"label":"es","prob":0.9028525},{"label":"es","prob":0.9419071},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,{"label":"gl","prob":0.884678},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93022674},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.970681},{"label":"es","prob":0.9599466},{"label":"es","prob":0.9797536},{"label":"es","prob":0.96335375},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,null,null,null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},null,null,null,{"label":"sr","prob":0.8570989},{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},{"label":"vi","prob":0.99561477},{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.9715037},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"La Gastronomía Palestina consiste en alimentos comúnmente ingeridos por los palestinos, incluidos aquellos que viven en Palestina, Israel, Jordania, los campos de refugiados en los países vecinos, así como aquellos que constituyen lo que se conoce como la diáspora palestina. Junto con las gastronomías de Siria, Jordania y el Líbano conforman la conocida como cocina levantina. La cocina es una difusión de las culturas de las civilizaciones que se asentaron en la región geográfica de Palestina, especialmente durante y después de la era islámica a partir de la conquista del árabe Ummayad; posteriormente, el eventual califato abatí con influencia persa y terminando con las fuertes influencias de la cocina turca, como resultado de la llegada de los turcos otomanos. Es similar a las otras cocinas levantinas, incluyendo la líbanesa, siria, israelí y jordana.\nLos estilos de cocción varían según la región, les encanta comer lowillos asesinados por ellos mismos.El estilo de cocina y los ingredientes utilizados se basan generalmente en el clima y la ubicación de la región en particular, así como en las tradiciones. El arroz y variaciones de kibbeh son comunes en la Galilea. Cisjordania se dedica principalmente en las comidas más pesadas que impliquen el uso de pan Pita, el arroz y la carne; por otro lado, los habitantes de las costas frecuentan el pescado, otros mariscos, y lentejas. La cocina de Gaza es una variación de la cocina de Levante, pero es más diversa en mariscos y especias. Habitantes de Gaza consumen en grandes cantidades chiles también. Las comidas se comen generalmente en el hogar, pero salir a cenar se ha vuelto importante sobre todo durante las fiestas donde comidas ligeras como ensaladas, pan y brochetas de carnes son servidas.\nEl área es también el hogar de muchos postres, que van desde aquellos realizadas regularmente y los que son únicamente preparados para las fiestas. La mayoría de los dulces palestinos son pasteles rellenos con quesos, dátiles o varios frutos secos como almendras, nueces o pistaches. Las bebidas también dependen de las fiestas, como durante el Ramadán, donde los jugos de algarrobo, tamarindo y albaricoque son consumidos al atardecer. El café se consume durante todo el día y el licor no es muy frecuente entre la población; sin embargo, algunas bebidas tales como arak o cerveza son consumidos por los cristianos y los musulmanes menos conservadores.\nÍndice\n1 Historia\n2 Cocinas regionales\n2.1 Galilea\n2.2 Cisjordania\n2.3 Gaza\n3 Tipos de comidas\n3.1 Comidas con arroz\n3.2 Guisados\n3.3 Comidas con pan\n3.4 Mahshi\n3.5 Salsas y guarniciones\n3.6 Ensaladas\n3.7 Dulces\n3.8 Aperitivos\n4 Estructura de las comidas\n5 Salir a cenar\n6 Bebidas\n6.1 Bebidas sin alcohol\n6.2 Café y té\n6.3 Licor\n7 Cocina festiva\n7.1 Ramadan\n7.2 Postres de las festividades\n8 Referencias\n9 Enlaces externos\n10 Lectura adicional\nHistoria[editar]\nTaboon, en Palestina. Foto tomada el 1898-1914 por American Colony, Jerusalem.\nLa región del Levante sur tiene un pasado muy variado y, como tal, su cocina tiene contribuciones de diversas culturas. Después de que el área fue conquistada por los musulmanes, se convirtió en parte de un País de Sham con el nombre de Yund Filastin; por lo tanto, muchos aspectos de la cocina palestina son similares a la cocina de Siria, especialmente en la Galilea. Platos sirio-palestinos modernos han sido generalmente influenciados por la regla de los tres principales grupos islámicos: los árabes, los árabes de influencia persa (iraquíes) y los turcos.[1]​\nLos árabes que conquistaron Siria y Palestina tenían inicialmente tradiciones culinarias sencillas basadas principalmente en el uso de arroz, cordero, yogur y dátiles.[2]​ Esta cocina no avanzó durante siglos hasta la subida del califato abasí, que estableció Bagdad como su capital e integró elementos de la cocina persa en la cocina árabe en existencia.[1]​ El geógrafo árabe al-Muqaddasi dijo los siguiente sobre los alimentos de Palestina:\nDe Palestina vienen las aceitunas, higos secos, pasas, la fruta de algarrobo ... de Jerusalén vienen los quesos y las pasas célebres de las especies conocidas como Ainuni y Duri , excelentes manzanas ... también los piñones de la clase llamada Quraish mordida , y su igual no se encuentra en otro lugar ... desde Sughar y Beit She'an vienen los dátiles, la melaza llamada dibs y el arroz.[3]​\nLa cocina del Imperio Otomano, que incorporó a Palestina en 1516, estaba parcialmente formada por lo que se había convertido, para entonces una \"rica\" cocina árabe. Después de la guerra de Crimea en 1855, muchas otras comunidades incluyendo bosnios, griegos, franceses e italianos comenzaron a establecerse en la zona, especialmente en los centros urbanos, tales como Jerusalén, Jaffa y Belén. Las cocinas de las comunidades contribuyeron al carácter de la cocina palestina, especialmente las comunidades de los Balcanes.[1]​[4]​ Hasta alrededor de los años 1950-1960, los principales ingredientes para la cocina rural palestina eran el aceite de oliva, orégano y pan horneado en un horno sencillo llamado Taboon.[5]​El autor G. Robinson Lees, en 1905, observó que \"el horno no está en la casa, tiene un edificio propio, propiedad conjunta de varias familias cuyo deber es mantenerlo siempre caliente.\"[6]​\nCocinas regionales[editar]\nHay tres regiones culinarias primarias de Palestina- la Galilea, Gaza y Cisjordania (que tiene sus propias sub regiones culinarias que van de norte a sur).[7]​ En la Galilea, bulgur y carne (de res o cordero) son los ingredientes principales que son a menudo combinado para formar diversas variaciones de platos que van desde una comida de tamaño familiar a una guarnición; sin embargo, en Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza, las poblaciones tienen un estilo de cocina propio. En Cisjordania, las comidas son particularmente pesadas y contrastan con los alimentos del norte del Levante. Los platos principales incluyen arroz, panes planos y carnes asadas. El alimento básico de los habitantes de la Franja de Gaza es el pescado debido a su ubicación en la costa mediterránea. Su cocina es similar a la del Levante; sin embargo, otras especias se utilizan con más frecuencia. Estas generalmente incluyen chiles, semillas de eneldo, ajo y acelgas. Aunque la cocina es variada, en general los palestinos no se restringen a los alimentos de su región específica y hay constante difusión culinaria entre ellos. Aunque debido al aislamiento de Gaza de otras zonas levantinas árabes y palestinas, sus estilos de cocina son menos conocidos en la región.\nGalilea[editar]\nPlato de bolas de kibbeh con hojas de menta como adorno\nLa cocina de la Galilea es muy similar a la cocina libanesa, debido a la extensa comunicación entre las dos regiones antes del establecimiento de Israel. La Galilea está especializada en comidas a base de la combinación de bulgur, especias y carne, conocidos como kubbi por los árabes. Kubbi bi-siniyee es una combinación de cordero o carne picada mezclada con pimienta y otras especias envueltos en una corteza de bulgur, cocida en el horno. Kubbi bi-siniyee podría servir como plato principal durante un almuerzo en Palestina. Kubbi neyee es una variación de kubbi, que se sirve como carne cruda mezclada con bulgur y una variedad de especias. Se consume principalmente como guarnición con pita o pan yufka utilizado para sostener la carne. Dado que el plato es crudo, todo lo que no se come se cocina al día siguiente, ya sea en la versión al horno o como pelotas Kibbeh fritos.[4]​[8]​\nUna comida para una ocasión especial en la Galilea consiste en cordero asado o cualquier otro tipo de carne complementado con una mezcla de arroz con carne de cordero picada y condimentada con un surtido de especias, generalmente adornado con perejil picado y nueces tostadas.[4]​ Shish kebab o lahme mashwi y shish taouk son carnes asadas en los pinchos y se comen comúnmente después de una gran variedad de aperitivos conocidos como la maza.[8]​\nEl meze consiste en una amplia variedad de aperitivos, generalmente incluyendo hummus (a veces cubierto con carne), ghannouj baba, tabouli, lebeneh, aceitunas y vegetales encurtidos. Queso Ackawi, un queso semiduro común en todo el Medio Oriente y entre la diáspora árabe, se originó en la ciudad de Acre en la costa de la Galilea. Acre se pronuncia Akka, siendo esto el origen del nombre del queso.[9]​\nCisjordania[editar]\nPan Musakhan\nMusakhkhan es un plato principal común que se originó en la zona de Yenín y Tulkarem, en el norte de Cisjordania. Se compone de un pollo asado sobre un pan Taboon o pita cubierto con trozos de cebolla dulce frita, zumaque, pimienta de Jamaica y piñones.[8]​ Maqluba es una cazuela al revés de arroz al revés y berenjena al horno mezclado con coliflores cocidas, zanahorias y pollo o cordero. El platillo es conocido en todo el Levante, pero entre los palestinos en particular. Su origen se remonta al siglo XII.[10]​\nUn siniyyeh de Mansaf\nMansaf es una comida tradicional en la región central de Cisjordania y Néguev en el sur de Cisjordania, que tiene sus raíces en la población beduina de la antigua Arabia. Se cocina principalmente en ocasiones como, durante las vacaciones, bodas o una gran reunión. Mansaf se cocina como una pierna de cordero o grandes trozos de cordero en la parte superior de un pan Taboon que por lo general ha sido cubierto con arroz amarillo. Un espeso yogur seco hecho con leche de cabra, llamado Jameed, se vierte en la parte superior del cordero y arroz para darle su distintivo sabor y gusto.[11]​ El plato también se adorna con piñones cocidos y almendras.[4]​La forma clásica de comer mansaf es utilizando la mano derecha como un utensilio. Por cortesía, los participantes utilizan las piezas de carne para servirse el platillo.[11]​\nMaqluba con cordero\nAdemás de las comidas, muchas sub regiones de Cisjordania tienen sus propias mermeladas a base de frutas. En la zona de Hebrón, los principales cultivos son las uvas. Las familias que viven en el área cosechan la uva en la primavera y el verano para producir una variedad de productos que van desde las pasas, mermeladas y una melaza conocidos como dibs.[8]​[12]​ La zona de Belén, Beit Jala, en particular, y el pueblo de Jifna son conocidos regionalmente por sus albaricoques y mermelada de albaricoque así como la zona de Tulkarem es conocida por sus aceitunas y aceite de oliva.[8]​\nGaza[editar]\nEstilo de cocina de la Franja de Gaza es similar a los estilos culinarios adoptadas por el resto de los países del Levante, y también está influenciada por la costa mediterránea. El alimento básico para la mayoría de los habitantes de la zona es el pescado. Gaza tiene una industria pesquera importante y el pescado se sirve a menudo ya sea a la parrilla o frito después de ser rellenado con cilantro, ajo, pimiento rojo y comino y marinado en una mezcla de cilantro, pimientos rojos, comino y limones cortados.[13]​[14]​ Además del pescado, así como otros tipos de mariscos, [8]​ Zibdieh es un platillo de cazuela de barro, que consiste en camarones cocidos en un guiso de aceite de oliva, ajo, chiles y tomates pelados.[15]​ Los cangrejos se cuecen y después rellenados con una pasta de pimiento rojo picante llamada shatta.[13]​\nUn platillo nativo de la zona de Gaza es el Sumaghiyyeh, que consiste en zumaque empapada en agua mezclada con tahina. La mezcla se añade a acelga rebanada y piezas de carne cocida y garbanzos guisados y, además, es aromatizado con semillas de eneldo, ajo y pimientos picantes. A menudo se come fresco con khubz. Rummaniyya se prepara de manera diferente dependiendo de la época del año y se compone de semillas de granada sin madurar, berenjenas, tahina, ajo, chiles y lentejas. Fukharit adas es un guiso de lentejas cocido a fuego lento condimentado con pimienta roja, semillas de eneldo, ajo machacado y comino; se hace tradicionalmente durante el invierno y principios de primavera.[13]​\nQidra es un plato de arroz nombrado por la vasija de barro y horno en el que se cuece. El arroz se cocina con trozos de carne en el interior de la vasija, a menudo utilizando cordero, los dientes de ajo enteros, garbanzos, vainas de cardamomo, y varias otras especias como, cúrcuma, canela, pimienta, nuez moscada y el comino. Arroz blanco cocido en carne o caldo de pollo y aromatizado con especias suaves incluyendo la canela se conoce como Fatteh ghazzawiyyeh. El arroz se coloca sobre un pan yufka delgado conocido como farasheeh, cubiertas con ghee y rematado con pollo o cordero relleno. Este platillo se come con pimientos verdes y salsa de limón.[13]​\nTipos de comidas[editar]\nComidas con arroz[editar]\nEl arroz es el ingrediente básico en platos ceremoniales y es un elemento muy importante de las comidas palestinas.[4]​ Platos con arroz suelen ser el platillo principal de la cena palestina, porque consisten en una variedad de ingredientes que se encuentran comúnmente en el territorio palestino. El arroz por lo general no se sirve solo o como guarnición (ver ruz ma Lajma abajo), sino que se incorpora dentro de un plato grande o tabeekh (plato), que incluye sopas, verduras y carne (pollo o cordero). La carne está casi siempre presente en los platos palestinos.\nMansaf es un plato muy popular que se sirve generalmente durante los eventos importantes, tales como una tradicional boda, compromiso, funeral, el bautismo y la circuncisión.[4]​ Es un plato que incorpora todos los elementos de la tierra palestina, como el pan, sopa de laban (yogur), arroz, frutos secos (piñones), perejil y cordero, haciéndolo un platillo cultural. La comida se sirve a menudo a la manera tradicional en plato largo común, un Sidr. La comida se come generalmente sin el uso de vajilla, sino que cada persona se sienta el uno al lado del otro uno para comer del mismo plato grande.\nMaqluba significa \"boca abajo\" en árabe, y es un plato hecho con carne, vegetales fritos y arroz. El plato se cocina con la carne en el fondo de una olla grande, a continuación, se añaden capas con verduras fritas, como las papas, zanahorias, coliflor y berenjena. Después, el arroz se añade al plato a medida que se completa la cocción. Cuando se sirve, el Maqluba se voltea boca abajo con la carne ahora en la parte superior, de ahí el nombre. Maqluba es un plato popular, comúnmente servido con ensalada y yogur por los palestinos.[16]​\nOozie es un rico plato de arroz con verduras picadas y carne asada servida con él. El plato es visto como relativamente más simple de cocinar que otros platos palestinos, ya que se cocina con arroz básico (con verduras en cubitos) y una carne servida en la parte superior de la misma. La comida se sirve en un gran Sidr, similar a mansaf, decorado con perejil picado y piñones picados o almendras picadas.\nRuz ma Lajma es generalmente el único plato conformado únicamente por arroz en la mayoría de cocina árabe y palestina, con arroz simplemente cocido, especias, carne picada y nueces. Se suele servir con un cordero completo, kharoof, como el plato principal.\nGuisados[editar]\nLos guisos son básicos para la cocina familiar diaria y siempre se sirven con fideos de arroz o arroz blanco. Son populares porque ofrecen una amplia gama de nutrientes de la carne, las verduras y el arroz. El líquido extra es también esencial en el clima seco. Los guisados también son económicamente beneficiosos, ya que proporcionan relativamente pequeña cantidad de carne en la alimentación de las familias numerosas, sobre todo entre la población más pobre.[13]​\nMloukhiyeh es un guiso de malva del Judío. La Malva del Judío es recogida durante el tiempo de la cosecha, y es congelada o secada. Es muy popular en el Medio Oriente, ya que se cultiva en zonas de clima seco. El guiso se cocina con el jugo de limón y agua, y servido con limones cortados y arroz. La comida puede ser servida con pollo o cordero; sin embargo, se puede servir sin ninguno (a diferencia de muchas otras comidas palestinos).[17]​\nAdas es una sana sopa de lentejas, común en el Medio Oriente. A diferencia de otras partes del Medio Oriente, los palestinos no incorporan yogur u otros ingredientes en esta sopa. Más bien se hace con lentejas y cebolla picada y servido con rodajas de cebolla y pan en el lado.[13]​\nComidas con pan[editar]\nPan Sfiha\nLos palestinos hornean una variedad de diferentes tipos de panes: incluyen khubz, pita y yufka y Taboon. Khubz es un pan de todos los días y es muy similar al pita. A menudo toma el lugar de los utensilios; se rompe en trozos pequeños y se utiliza para recoger diversas salsas como hummus o ful.[8]​ Yufka es un pan delgado como papel sin levadura y cuando se desdobla es casi transparente.[18]​ Taboon recibe su nombre de los hornos utilizados para hornearlo.[8]​\nMusakhkhan es un plato muy popular palestino compuesto de pollo asado, con cebolla frita, zumaque, pimienta de Jamaica, azafrán y piñones encima de uno o más taboons. El plato se suele comer con las manos y se sirve con limón cortado en el lado. En abril de 2010, los palestinos se introdujeron en el Libro Guinness de los Récords por el plato más grande de Musakhkhan.\nLa gastronomía de Palestina también incluye muchos alimentos como pizzas pequeñas, incluyendo manakish, sfiha, fatayer, samosa y ikras. Sfiha es un pan plano en miniatura al horno, cubierto con cordero y pimientos cocidos o tomates. Manakish es un pan plano al horno, por lo general cubierto con za'atar y aceite de oliva.[8]​ Sfiha son empanadas de carne decoradas con especias y pimientos. Samosa y Fatayer son pastas al horno o a veces fritas rellenas de carne picada y cebollas cocidas o snobar (piñones).[8]​ Fatayer suele plegarse en triángulos y, a diferencia de la samosa, podría ser llenado con queso árabe o za'atar. Ikras es similar a samosa y fatayer, mediante el uso de la pasta rellena de carne o de espinacas, sin embargo, no se fríen (como la samosa), y por lo general se sirven como una comida en lugar de adición de la comida o guarnición.\nLos emparedados generalmente se hacen utilizando yufka o khubz, como el Döner y Falafel también son comidas comunes de pan. El döner se puede servir como un bocadillo o una comida con carne y pan. Puede ser de pollo o carne de res y está adornado con una variedad de aderezos. Estos pueden incluir encurtidos, hummus, o una mezcla de yogur de ajo. Falafel, garbanzos fritos, perejil y cebolla se fríen en pequeñas empanadas y están adornadas con coberturas similares a döner.[8]​\nUna mujer palestina horneando pan markook bread en la ciudad de Artes\nMahshi[editar]\nPorción de tamaño familiar de waraq al-'ainib\nLos platillos de mahshi (pl. Mahshi) se componen verduras rellenas de arroz como berenjenas, calabazas, patatas, zanahorias y calabacines, así como una variedad de verduras de hoja, principalmente hojas de uva, hojas de col y con menos frecuencia acelgas. Mahshi requiere delicadeza y el tiempo-razón principal por la cual se prepara antes del día en que se cocina y se sirve. Muchas mujeres de la familia participan en la laminación y el relleno de las verduras, disminuyendo la cantidad de esfuerzo individual requerido, con gran atención al detalle.[4]​\nWaraq al-'ainib \"hojas de uva rellenas\" es una comida mahshi reservada para grandes reuniones. Las hojas de la uva están normalmente envueltas alrededor de la carne picada, arroz blanco y los tomates cortados en cubitos; sin embargo, no siempre se utiliza carne. Es una excelente representación de la atención a los detalles que se encuentran comúnmente en la cocina palestina y levante, con cada pieza bien envuelta en bocados del tamaño de cigarrillos (algunas familias difieren en su estructura). Luego se cocina y se sirven docenas de rollos en un plato grande por lo general acompañado de rodajas de patata hervida, zanahorias y trozos de cordero. Kousa mahshi son calabacines rellenos con los mismos ingredientes que waraq al-'ainib y por lo general se sirve junto a él en las comidas pesadas. Si se hace con un gran número de calabacines, así como el waraq al-'ainib se conoce como waraq al-'ainib wa kousa.[8]​\nSalsas y guarniciones[editar]\nSalsas para pan y guarniciones como: hummus, baba ghanoush, mutabbel y labneh son frecuentes durante el desayuno y la cena.\nHummus es un elemento básico en guarniciones palestinas, en particular en hummus bi tahini, en la que granos molidos hervidos se mezclan con tahini (pasta de sésamo) y, a veces el jugo de limón.[19]​ Hummus es a menudo mezclado con aceite de oliva y, a veces salpicado con paprika, orégano y piñones; estos últimos son especialmente populares en Cisjordania.[20]​ Los garbanzos también se mezclan con tul (faca habas), resultando en un plato totalmente diferente, mukhluta, con un sabor distinto y color parduzco.[8]​\nBaba ghanoush es una salsa de berenjena con varias versiones. La raíz de todas las variantes es puré de berenjena asada y tahini con aceite de oliva, que puede ser saborizado, ya sea con ajo, cebolla, pimientos, semillas de comino molido, menta y perejil.[21]​ Mutabbel es una de las variantes más picantes ya que contiene ralladura de chiles verdes.[22]​\nJibneh arabieh o jibneh baida es un queso de mesa blanco servido con cualquiera de los platos anteriores.[8]​ El queso Ackawi es una variación común de jibneh baida, tiene una textura suave y un sabor salado sutil.[23]​ Labaneh es un pastel de yogur, con textura de queso crema, ya sea servido en un plato con aceite de oliva y za'atar-que generalmente se llama labeneh wa za'atar- o en un sándwich khubz.[8]​\nPlato de hummus con paprika, aceite de oliva y piñones\nEnsaladas[editar]\nTabulé con lechuga y rodajas de limón\nLa ensalada palestina más servida es un tipo simple conocido como salatat bandura(ensalada de tomate), similar a la ensalada árabe. Se compone de tomates cortados en cubitos y pepinos combinados con aceite de oliva, perejil, jugo de limón y sal. Dependiendo de la zona de Palestina, la receta puede incluir cebollín y ajo también.[24]​\nTabulé es una ensalada de mesa de estilo mediterráneo originarios del Levante. La ensalada está hecha de pedazos perejil, bulgur, tomates picados, pepinos y está salteado con jugo de limón y vinagre. En 2006, el mayor plato de tabulé en el mundo fue preparado por cocineros palestinos en la ciudad cisjordana de Ramala.[25]​\nFattoush es una combinación de piezas de pan tostado y perejil con pepinos picados, rábanos, tomates y cebollines y condimentados con zumaque.[26]​ Dagga es una ensalada de Gaza usualmente hecha en un cuenco de barro y es una mezcla de tomate triturado, dientes de ajo, chiles rojos, eneldo picado y aceite de oliva. Es sazonado con jugo de limón inmediatamente antes de ser servido.[13]​\nSalatah arabieh o \"ensalada árabe\" es una ensalada utilizada con la mayoría de las comidas. Lechuga romana, tomates y pepinos son los ingredientes principales. La lechuga se corta en tiras largas y luego picadas en tiras finas, los tomates y los pepinos se cortan en cubos. Una pizca de sal, el jugo de un limón fresco entero y varias cucharadas de aceite de oliva se utilizan para dar el toque final.[27]​\nDulces[editar]\nUn siniyyeh de Kanafeh\nLos postres palestinos incluyen baklava, halawa y kanafeh, así como otros pasteles de sémola y trigo. Baklawa es una pasta hecha de hojas delgadas de pasta de harina sin levadura (hojaldre), llenos de pistaches y nueces endulzadas con miel.[8]​ Burma Til-Kadayif, o simplemente Burma, especialmente popular en el este de Jerusalén, tiene el mismo relleno que el baklawa, pero es cilíndrico y hecho con masa de kanafeh en lugar de hojaldre. Halawa es un dulce de sésamo endulzado servido en trozos. Muhalabiyeh es un arroz con leche hecho con leche y rematado con pistaches o almendras.[8]​ Kanafeh (kanafeh bil-Jibn), es un postre muy conocido en el mundo árabe y Turquía. Hecho de varias tiras finas de fideos de pastelería con queso endulzado con miel en el centro, la capa superior de la masa es usualmente teñida de naranja con colorante de alimentos y rociado con pistachos triturados. Nablus, hasta nuestros días es famosa por su kanafeh, en parte debido a su uso de un queso en salmuera blanco llamado Nabulsi en honor a la ciudad. Azúcar hervida se utiliza como un jarabe para el kanafeh.[8]​\nDulces Baklawa de Nablus\nAperitivos[editar]\nEs común que los anfitriones palestinos sirvan frutas frescas y secas, nueces, semillas y dátiles para sus huéspedes. Sandía asada y salda, calabaza y semillas de girasol, así como, pistachos y anacardos son legumbres comunes.\nSemillas de la sandía, conocidas como bizir al-bateekh y semillas de calabaza, conocidas como bizir abyad se comen regularmente durante varias actividades de ocio: jugar cartas, fumar argeelah, conversar con amigos o antes y después de las comidas[14]​\nEstructura de las comidas[editar]\nLa cultura y la vida de los palestinos gira en torno a los alimentos en todos los aspectos, ya sea si se trata de un día ordinario o una ocasión especial, como una boda o una fiesta.[28]​ Las comidas se estructuran en un orden cíclico por los palestinos y lapso en dos platos principales y varios más intermedios como el café, frutas y dulces, así como la cena. Al igual que en la mayoría de las culturas árabes, las comidas son un tiempo para estar con la familia y podrían durar 1-2 horas dependiendo de la hora específica del día. A diferencia de otras culturas, el almuerzo es el alimento primario y el desayuno y la cena son más ligeros en su contenido.[23]​\nFatur/Iftur (lit. \"desayuno\") es un término para el desayuno, por lo general se compone de huevos fritos, aceitunas, labaneh, aceite de oliva, za'atar o mermeladas. Hummus bi tahini también se come principalmente durante este tiempo el día.[23]​\nGhada es un término para el almuerzo, por lo general al final de la tarde. El almuerzo es la comida más pesada del día y podría incluir el arroz, cordero, pollo, verduras cocidas y formas de mahashi.[8]​[23]​\nAsrooneh deriva de la palabra 'Asr' (lit.' tarde ') es un término para el consumo de una variedad de frutas y legumbres después gheda.[23]​\n'Asha es un término para la cena, que se come generalmente en cualquier momento 8-10 p. m.. 'Asha es más simple que gheda y algunos alimentos consumidos incluyen fatayer, hummus bi tahina, una variedad de ensaladas y una tortilla de estilo levantino llamada ijee.[23]​\n'Hilew A veces después o justo antes de' asha, así como cuando se tienen visitas incluye varios dulces. Baklawa es común y por lo general se adquiere de pastelerías en lugar de hechos en casa, como muhallabiyeh.\nShay wa Kahwah Té y el café se sirven en todo el día antes, después y entre fatur, ghada y 'asha.\nSalir a cenar[editar]\nUn maqhah en Jerusalén durante el reinado Otomano en Palestina, 1858\nRestaurantes o mata'im ofrecen una brillante gama de aperitivos fríos conocidos como el meze. Notablemente se ofrecen hummus bi tahina, mukhluta, a veces casi una docena de variaciones de ensalada de berenjena, tabulé, fattoush, ensaladas de pimiento y repollo rojo y platos elaborados por el chef son servidos. Bolas de Kibbeh y sfiha son los aperitivos calientes principalmente disponibles. Las comidas pesadas raramente son proporcionados por los restaurantes; sin embargo, los platos principales incluyen shish kebab, shish taouk, costillas de cordero y pechugas de pollo.[29]​ Tiendas de Falafel o Mahal falafel ofertan falafel y shawarma principalmente con varios contenidos diferentes. También ofrecen hummus o tabulé para ser servido con la comida.[30]​\nCafeterías o Al-Maqhah sirven bebidas calientes y refrescos y por lo general se limitan a clientes masculinos -que participan en actividades de ocio como jugar a las cartas o al backgammon y fumar argileh (árabe para la hookah).[29]​ Confiterías o Mahal al hilaweyat, pueden ser encontradas en los zocos de las ciudades y las ciudades más importantes, ofrecen una amplia gama de dulces comunes con los palestinos, como, kanafeh, baklawa y galletas con sabor a anís. Tiendas familiares a menudo sirven al menos un tipo de dulce que ellos mismos crearon.[31]​ La ciudad de Nablus, en particular, son mundialmente famosos por sus exquisitos dulces árabes, y tienen algunas de las tiendas de dulces más antiguas de Palestina.\nBebidas[editar]\nMujer palestina moliendo café, 1905\nBebidas sin alcohol[editar]\nLos refrescos también son comunes en los hogares palestinos y la ciudad de Ramallah existe una planta embotelladora de Coca-Cola, mientras que Gaza, Hebrón y Naplusa tienen centros de distribución.[32]​ Una planta de Pepsi-Cola en Gaza fue cerrada en 2007.[33]​\nJugos de frutas hechos en casa son también una bebida común de la casa durante los días cálidos y durante el Ramadán, el mes sagrado de ayuno de los musulmanes.[8]​ En la cultura palestina, el café y el té se sirve tradicionalmente a los adultos durante una visita o reunión, mientras que el jugo se sirve principalmente a los niños. Sin embargo, en ocasiones especiales a todo el mundo se le sirven jugos como tamar hind o qamar deen. Tamar hind, originario de África es una bebida de regaliz hecho por inmersión o infusión de palos de regaliz, y la adición de jugo de limón. Qamar Deen se sirve tradicionalmente para romper el ayuno del Ramadán (así como el agua), y es una bebida helada a partir de una hoja seca de albaricoque empapadas en agua, y se mezcla con jugo de limón o jarabe.[34]​\nRose o la menta de agua es una bebida comúnmente añadida a los dulces y platos palestinos. Sin embargo, también es una bebida popular por su cuenta, y es visto como refrescante en los veranos calientes. Las hierbas como la salvia también se pueden hervir con agua para crear una bebida que a veces se utiliza con fines medicinales.[34]​Una bebida caliente a base de leche endulzada con salep adornada con nueces, ralladura de coco y canela, se conoce como sahlab y es principalmente servido durante la temporada de invierno.[35]​\nCafé y té[editar]\nDos bebidas calientes que los palestinos consumen es el café -servido en la mañana y durante todo el día- y el té que a menudo se ingiere por la noche. El té se suele saborizar con na'ana (menta) o maramiyyeh (salvia). El café de elección suele ser café turco o árabe. El café árabe es similar al café turco, pero el primero es especiado con cardamomo y suele ser sin azúcar.[8]​\nEntre los beduinos y la mayoría de otros árabes en toda la región de Palestina, café amargo, conocido como qahwah sadah (Lit.café normal), era un símbolo de la hospitalidad. Verter la bebida era ceremonial; implicaba al anfitrión o su hijo mayor moviéndose hacia la derecha entre los invitados- que eran juzgados por la edad y el status- vertiendo el café en pequeñas tazas de una olla de latón. Se consideraba \"educado\" que los invitados sólo aceptaran tres tazas de café y luego terminaran su última copa diciendo daymen, que significa \"siempre\", pero con la intención de significar \"puede siempre contar con los medios para servir el café \"..\nLicor[editar]\nUn licor de gran consumo entre los cristianos palestinos y muchos musulmanes menos estrictos es Arak. Arak es una bebida alcohólica con sabor a anís claro, que se mezcla con agua para ablandarlo y darle un color blanco cremoso. Se consume en ocasiones especiales como fiestas, bodas y reuniones o con el meze.[8]​La cerveza es también una bebida consumida y la ciudad palestina de Taybeh en el centro de Cisjordania contiene la única fábrica de cerveza en los territorios palestinos. Además de cerveza normal, la fábrica de cerveza produce la cerveza sin alcohol para los musulmanes estrictos.[36]​\nCocina festiva[editar]\nHay una marcada diferencia entre los platillos que los palestinos comen a diario y aquellos reservados para las festividades-que incluyen celebraciones religiosas y familiares de los musulmanes y los cristianos.\nRamadan[editar]\nEn el pasado, durante el mes de ayuno del Ramadán, el Musaher de un pueblo gritaba y golpeaba el tambor para despertar a los residentes de la ciudad para el suhoor (lit. 'alba') - por lo general muy temprano en la mañana, entre las 4-6 a.m.. Las comidas consumidas durante este tiempo son ligeras y alimentos que incluyen labeneh, queso, pan y huevos fritos o hervidos junto con diversos líquidos para beber. La llamada del muecín a la oración del alba marcó el comienzo de sawm o ayuno.[28]​\nRomper el ayuno del día tradicionalmente comienza con el breve consumo de dátiles y una bebida fría. Los palestinos hacen una variedad de bebidas a base de fruta, incluidos los sabores, tamar hindi o tamarindo, sous o regaliz, kharroub o algarrobos y qamar eddine.[8]​ Tamar Hindi se hace remojando tamarindos en agua durante muchas horas, luego se cuela, endulza y mezcla con agua de rosas y jugo de limón.[28]​ Kharroub se hace de manera similar pero en lugar de tamarindo, se utiliza el algarrobo.[8]​ Qamar Eddine está hecho de albaricoques secos cocidos y enfriados.[28]​\nEl término iftar tiene un significado diferente en el Ramadán en el que se utiliza para describir la \"ruptura del ayuno\" a diferencia de su sentido común de desayuno en la mañana. Iftar comienza con la sopa, ya sea de lentejas, verduras o freekeh. Shurbat freekeh (\"sopa freekeh\") está hecho de trigo verde cocido en caldo de pollo. Hay una amplia variedad de comidas que se sirven durante el iftar, que van desde pequeños platos o tazones a base de vegetales o saniyyehs (platos o bandejas grandes) de una carne en particular. Pequeños platos comunes en la mesa de la cena son Bamia-un nombre para la okra en pasta de tomate, mloukhiyeh-guiso de malava-o maqali, una gran variedad de tomates fritos, berenjenas, patatas, pimientos y el calabacín. Pilaf o freekeh normalmente se sirven junto a la carne de la cena. Cada familia prepara comida extra para mantener a sus vecinos y los menos afortunados, quienes deben recibir una versión igual de los alimentos consumidos en el hogar.[28]​\nPostres de las festividades[editar]\nKa'ak estilo libanés con ma'amoul\nUn postre palestino común reservado sólo para el Ramadán es el qatayef, que podría ser proporcionado por los numerosos vendedores ambulantes en varias ciudades palestinas más importantes, así como los hogares palestinos típicos.[37]​ Qatayef es el nombre general de los postres en su conjunto, pero más específicamente, el nombre de la masa que actúa como una base. El resultado de verter la mezcla en un plato redondo caliente es similar a los panqueques, exceptoq que un solo lado se cocina, y luego se dobla. La pastelería está llena de queso de cabra sin sal o nueces molidas y la canela. A continuación, se cuece y se sirve con un jarabe de azúcar y agua caliente o a veces la miel.[38]​ Ka'ak bi 'Awja es una pasta de sémola dulce llena de dátiles de tierra llamados 'Ajwa o nueces. El postre es una comida tradicional para los cristianos durante la Pascua,[39]​ sin embargo, ka'ak bu awja también se prepara hacia el final del Ramadán, para ser comido durante el Eid al-Fitr, una fiesta musulmana inmediatamente después de Ramadán, así como durante Eid al-Adha.[28]​[40]​ Durante mawlid-la fiesta en honor al nacimiento del profeta Muhammad- se sirve el Zalabieh que consiste en pequeñas y crujientes bolas de masa frita en jarabe. La masa está hecha de harina, levadura y agua.[39]​\nQatayef\nUn pudín especial llamado Mughli se prepara para un niño recién nacido. El postre está hecho de arroz molido, azúcar y una mezcla de especias, adornado con almendras, piñones y nueces. Un diente nuevo de un bebé se celebra con tazones de trigo endulzado o cebada y dulces servidos después de la circuncisión de un niño incluyen baklava y burma. Las familias cristianas en el duelo sirven un bollo dulce conocido como Rahmeh. Es un alimento comido en memoria de los muertos y como un gesto de bendecir el alma de la persona fallecida. La Iglesia Ortodoxa Griega ofrece una bandeja especial con trigo cocido cubierto de azúcar y dulces después de un funeral.[39]​\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ a b c Revisiting our table… Archivado el 27 de noviembre de 2013 en Wayback Machine. Nasser, Christiane Dabdoub, This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 2006, Accessed on 2008-01-08.\n↑ ABC of Arabic Cuisine Archivado el 4 de julio de 2011 en Wayback Machine. ArabNet. Accessed on 2007-12-25.\n↑ le Strange, Guy (1890), Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500, Comité del Fondo para la Exploración de Palestina, pp. 18-19 .\n↑ a b c d e f g An Introduction to Palestinian Cuisine: Typical Palestinian Dishes Archivado el 24 de julio de 2011 en Wayback Machine. This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. July 2001, Accessed on 2007-01-07.\n↑ Modernity and Authenticity: The Evolution of the Palestinian Kitchen Archivado el 24 de julio de 2011 en Wayback Machine. Qleibo, Ali, This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. December 2006, Accessed on 2008-01-09.\n↑ G. Robinson Lees (1905): Village Life in Palestine, Longmans, Green, and Co., p. 95\n↑ Palestinian Flavour Archivado el 21 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. Mustafa, Sufian; This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. August 2001, Accessed on 2008-01-08.\n↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n ñ o p q r s t u v w Cuisine Archivado el 4 de agosto de 2007 en Wayback Machine. Institute for Middle East Understanding (IMEU) 2006-01-16. Accessed on 2007-12-18\n↑ Types of Cheese in the Middle East Fayed, Saad. New York Times Company.\n↑ Upside-Down Rice and Eggplant Casserole Maqluba Clifford A. Wright. Accessed on 2007-12-19.\n↑ a b Aburish, Said K. (1998). Children of Bethany; The Story of a Palestinian Family. I. B. Taurus. pp. 69-70. ISBN 1-85043-109-4.\n↑ Sample Area Background: Beit Ummar Christian Peacemaker Teams. Accessed on 2007-07-22.\n↑ a b c d e f g The Foods of Gaza Archivado el 1 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. al-Haddad, Laila, This week in Palestine. Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 2006, Accessed on 2008-01-07.\n↑ a b The rich flavors of Palestine Archivado el 16 de abril de 2009 en Wayback Machine. Farsakh, Mai M. Institute for Middle East Understanding (IMEU), (Originally published by This Week in Palestine) 2006-06-21 Accessed on 2007-12-18\n↑ Al Sammak Ghornata Archivado el 1 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. December 2001 Accessed on 2008-01-07\n↑ «Palestinian Cuisine». Archivado desde el original el 7 de julio de 2015. Consultado el 17 de septiembre de 2015.\n↑ «Cuisine - Discover Palestine».\n↑ Our Arab American Story Visionalist. Accessed on 2007-12-23\n↑ Hummus, a Palestinian staple Archivado el 1 de diciembre de 2008 en Wayback Machine. Lalie Ibrahim. Institute for Middle East Understanding, 2006-03-31.\n↑ Palestinian Hummus, The San Francisco Chronicle, Food Section, 2007-04-04.\n↑ Palestinian Cuisine & Recipes: Baba Ghanoush Harvey, Brad. Whats 4 Eats, International Recipes & Cooking Around the World. Accessed on 2007-12-20.\n↑ Recipe of the Month: Mutabbal (Eggplant salad) Archivado el 1 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. August 1999, Accessed on 2008-01-08.\n↑ a b c d e f Meals of the Day Archivado el 29 de marzo de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. March 2002, Accessed on 2008-01-07.\n↑ Farsoun, Samih K.Culture and customs of the Palestinians (2004) Greenwood Publishing Group: pp.65-66\n↑ One for the record books Institute for Middle East Understanding. 2006-06-14. Accessed on 2007-12-19.\n↑ Fattoush The New York Times Company. 2006-07-26. Accessed on 2007-12-23\n↑ Qleibo, Ali. Tamarind, Tomatoes and Dried Yoghurt The Aesthetics of the Palestinian Cuisine Archivado el 14 de marzo de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This Week in Palestine. June 2006.\n↑ a b c d e f The Palestinian kitchen: Foods of Ramadan Mustafa, Sufian. Institute for Middle East Understanding, (Extracted from This Week in Palestine). 2007-09-22. Accessed on 2007-12-23.\n↑ a b Restaurants Archivado el 9 de enero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. Mustafa, Sufian. This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. November 2002\n↑ Abu Shanab (Uncle Mustache) Falafel Archivado el 9 de enero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd\n↑ Zalatimo Sweets Archivado el 9 de enero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 1998, Accessed on 2008-01-09.\n↑ Middle East Rumors The Coca-Cola Company. 2006-12-31. Accessed on 2007-12-19.\n↑ Soft Drink Fizz Goes Flat in Gaza TIME Tim McGirk, December 13, 2007. Accessed on 2009-09-19\n↑ a b http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=6-23&cid=10&did=983\n↑ Culture and Attraction: Gastronomy Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation\n↑ Where the West Bank meets Bavaria BBC News Martin Asser, September 2007\n↑ Qatayef (Ramadan pancakes) Archivado el 24 de julio de 2011 en Wayback Machine. This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. 2007-07-09 Accessed on 2008-01-07.\n↑ Ramadan in the Old City Archivado el 1 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. November 2004, Accessed on 2008-01-08.\n↑ a b c Dishes for Special Occasions Archivado el 1 de febrero de 2014 en Wayback Machine. Khoury, Samia, This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 2006, Accessed on 2008-01-07\n↑ A tale of two Easters:Easter Cookies with Dates (Kaak bi Ajwa) Saekel, Karola. Institute for Middle East Understanding (IMEU), (originally published by the San Francisco Chronicle. 2007-04-04. Accessed on 2007-12-18\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nWikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Gastronomía de Palestina.\nThe rich flavors of Palestine Mai M. Farsakh, This Week in Palestine, Jun 21, 2006\nPalestinian Cuisine IMEU, JAN 16, 2006\nHummus, a Palestinian staple by Lailie Ibrahim, Mar. 31, 2006\nRamadan in Palestine at the Institute for Middle East Understanding\nFalafel balls filled with French cheese\nKitchen of Palestine: A Food Blog about Palestinian Cooking\nJack’s Palestinian Comfort Food: Snack Attack!\nRecetas palestinas - Descripciones en inglés.\nLectura adicional[editar]\nChristiane Dabdoub Nasser, Classic Palestinian Cookery, Saqi Books, London, 2001, ISBN 0-86356-548-4\nChristiane Dabdoub Nasser, Classic Palestinian Cuisine, Saqi Books, London, 2008, ISBN 0-86356-618-9\nAziz Shihab, A Taste of Palestine: Menus and Memories, Corona Publishing Co. ISBN 0-931722-93-4\n\"The Middle Eastern Kitchen\", Ghillie Basan. E. Tuttle Pub, 2005\n\"Classic Palestinian Cookery\", Christiane Dabdoub Nasser, Ed. Saqi Books, 2001\n\"A Taste of Palestine: Menus and Memories\", Aziz Shihab, Ed. Corona Publishing Co., 1993\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q1154594\nMultimedia: Cuisine of Palestine\nIdentificadores\nLCCN: sh2003010212\nDatos: Q1154594\nMultimedia: Cuisine of Palestine\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gastronomía_de_Palestina&oldid=137507052»\nCategoría:\nGastronomía de Palestina\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN\nWikipedia:Páginas con enlaces mágicos de ISBN\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nالعربية\nবাংলা\nČeština\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nفارسی\nFrançais\nעברית\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\nJawa\nქართული\n한국어\nBahasa Melayu\nРусский\nTürkçe\nTiếng Việt\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 6 ago 2021 a las 21:38.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de 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{"content":"El texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categor%C3%ADa:Multiplexaci%C3%B3n","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:48:35Z","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:37ee073e-60ea-483c-ae06-7ed6d55e1a1b>","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:bd2ded0b-c88a-4e6d-a92d-becde97a126b>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:GY2IPMPTN7XJJWAW72GLKJJOGGZS75BV","content-length":"336"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.9621863},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"12°43′00″S 69°44′00″O / -12.716666666667, -69.733333333333Coordenadas: 12°43′00″S 69°44′00″O / -12.716666666667, -69.733333333333\nUbicación administrativa\nPaís\nPerú Perú\nDivisión\nCuzco\nPuno\nMadre de Dios\nLong. de coronación\n400 kilómetros\nCuerpo de agua\nAfluentes\nSan Gabán y Araza (o Marcapata)\nLongitud\n437 km\nSuperficie de cuenca\n20.400 km²\nCaudal medio\n961 m³/s\nAltitud\nNacimiento: 4.880 m\nDesembocadura: 210 m\nMapa de localización\nLocalización en la cuenca del río Madeira\nLocalización en el curso alto del Madre de Dios\n[editar datos en Wikidata]\nEl río Inambari es un río amazónico peruano, afluente del río Madre de Dios, que discurre por los departamentos de Puno, Cusco y Madre de Dios.\nÍndice\n1 Etimología\n2 Historia\n3 Geografía\n4 Geología\n5 Zonas ecológicas de la cuenca\n5.1 Hábitats acuáticos\n5.2 Calidad del agua del río\n5.3 Peces de la cuenca del Inambari\n5.4 Migraciones de peces\n5.4.1 Migraciones de larga distancia\n5.4.2 Carácidos y otros bagres migratorios\n5.4.3 Migraciones locales entre la llanura amazónica y el piedemonte andino en el Inambari\n5.5 Impactos humanos en los ecosistemas acuáticos de la cuenca del Inambari\n6 Flora de la cuenca\n7 Fauna terrestre\n8 Población humana\n9 La minería del oro\n9.1 El río del oro\n9.2 El oro en Madre de Dios en la actualidad (2000-2013)\n10 La coca\n11 Los proyectos hidroeléctricos\n12 Referencias\n13 Referencias\n14 Enlaces externos\nEtimología[editar]\nSegún Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, lingüista peruano, la etimología de \"Inambari\" procede de la lengua iñapari, de la gran familia lingüística arahuaca, hablada en la región. De manera que \"iñapari\" e \"inambari\" no son sino variantes de una misma forma y es muy probable que aluda al grupo étnico involucrado y a su lengua.\nHistoria[editar]\nEl río ha sido una frontera natural a lo largo de la historia de la región. Antes de los incas estaba situado entre dos focos culturales: el altiplano del Collao y la sabana de Mojos (río Mamoré) y, puesto que las comunidades alto andinas controlaban nichos ecológicos a diferentes alturas para tener acceso a toda una variedad de productos, es casi seguro que los \"señoríos\" Kallawaya, de la zona de Apolobamba, y quizás otros, hayan tenido \"colonias\" en la parte alta del Inambari para plantar coca y para servir de lugares de intercambio entre productos andinos y amazónicos, pero hasta ahora no hay suficientes investigaciones arqueológicas para corroborar esta afirmación. En el lado occidental de la alta cuenca del Inambari algunas guarniciones incas indudablemente se han establecido en lugares previamente habitados.\nEn la época incaica el Inambari separaba la tierra del Inca, Antisuyo (al SE del Cusco), de las tierras no sojuzgadas de los Chunchos. Según el Inca Garcilaso ejércitos del segundo o tercer inca descendieron hacia los Anti llegando hasta el río Callabaya (el Inambari o el Tambopata). El cuarto Inca anexó los valles orientales de San Gabán y Larecaja (hoy Bolivia). El príncipe Yaguar Huacac pasó por el río Paucartambo y estableció colonias en los ríos Avisca y Tono para producir coca. Topa Inca Yupanqui desciende con una flota de balsas el río Amarumayo (hoy Madre de Dios), pasa por la boca del Inambari, somete a los Chunchos y finalmente los restos de su maltrecho ejército llegan a la provincia de los Mojos.[1]​ Para los incas el bosque amazónico era un lugar iniciático, de chamanes, allí el inca Mayta Cápac habría adquirido sus poderes de gran guerrero y gran cazador. Es el origen de plantas sagradas como el ayahuasca, el tabaco y la coca, pero también es un lugar de voraces serpientes que se tragan a los andinos.\nLos más importantes sitios incas identificados en esa frontera son Wat'amarka con la fortaleza de Juchuy Qaliri, en Coasa (Puno) sobre el río Esquena, y la guarnición de Phisqapunku en Phusca, Usicayos (Puno) con su gran kallanka o centro administrativo.[2]​\nLuego de la conquista del Perú por los españoles varias expediciones venidas del Cusco trataron de entrar a las selvas del Antisuyo a la búsqueda del Paititi, la mítica ciudad del oro de donde habría venido gran parte del tesoro del rescate del inca Atahualpa, capturado por Francisco Pizarro en Cajamarca. Pero tanto las expediciones de Pedro de Candia (1538), del fundador de Arequipa Pedro Anzúrez de Camporredondo (1538 y 1539), de Juan Álvarez Maldonado y su rival Gómez de Tordoya (1566), fracasaron. Todas, menos la de Candia, tuvieron grandes pérdidas de vidas de españoles y de sus cargadores indígenas. Puesto que descendían por el Amarumayo algunas de ellas han debido pasar por la boca del Inambari. El mapa Peruviae Auriferae Regionis Typus de Diego Mendes, publicado por Abraham Ortelius en Amberes en 1592, muestra una red de ríos al este de Carabaya, uno de los cuales sería el Inambari.\nDurante la colonia el Inambari era el límite oriental de la provincia de Carabaya, la que pertenecía al Obispado del Cusco y a la brumosa tierra de la misión franciscana de Apolobamba (no jesuítica como las de Moxos, Chiquitos u otras más orientales). Los franciscanos hicieron varias entradas a la selva para convertir a los infieles \"quemando los ydolos y cassas de adoratorios\".[3]​ Destaca aquí la expedición de los capitanes españoles De Zecenarro por la cuenca del Inambari y Tambopata (1677), en búsqueda del Paititi. Por otro lado los indígenas a veces resistieron, matando a flechazos a los españoles o atacando sus asentamientos, como San Gabán. En las cabeceras del Inambari se lavaba oro por el que se debía pagar un tributo al rey.\nEn 1777 Carabaya sigue perteneciendo al obispado del Cusco pero es administrada por el virreinato del Río de la Plata, puesto que es parte de la Audiencia de Charcas. En el mapa de 1802 de Francisco de Carrascón y Solá,[4]​ presbítero de la catedral del Cusco, se llama al río Inambari San Cristóbal-San Gaván y aparece como un afluente del Beni, el que a su vez aparece como afluente del Ucayali, lo que refleja el gran desconocimiento de la época de la geografía de esta región. Aparece como atravesando los territorios de los Pacaguaxas y los Toromonas, pero en el mismo mapa, al norte de Macusani aparece un pueblo que se llama Yanambari. Según el mapa esta es una zona de coca, canela, cacao y café.\nEn el mapa de la Intendencia de Puno de 1809, del padre Benito Valencia, aparecen la confluencia de los ríos Sandía y Huari Huari y la subsecuente curva del Inambari hacia el oeste, pero luego se vuelve territorio desconocido.\nEste desconocimiento va a continuar durante la república. Pero si el oro ya había vinculado el Inambari con los mercados internacionales durante la época española, el problema del paludismo que plagaba ciudades como Roma y Londres y la expansión colonial europea en la India, Indochina y África, donde más europeos morían por las fiebres que por la resistencia de los naturales, llevaría a aventureros y científicos como el conde de Castelnau, Charles Ledger y Clements R. Markham a internarse en las selvas sudamericanas a la búsqueda del árbol de la quina o cascarilla (Cinchona sp.) cuya corteza cura el paludismo, con la intención de trasplantarlo a sus colonias tropicales. Las semillas y plantones extraídos por Markham y Ledger de la región del Alto Inambari y Tambopata estuvieron al origen de inmensas plantaciones, científicamente manejadas, en la India y en las Indias Orientales Neerlandesas.\nEntre 1850 y 1864 un misionero italiano, Samuel Mancini, venido del Beni, exploró varios afluentes del Madre de Dios, habiendo, quizás, entrado al Inambari. Él dibujó un mapa esquemático de esa región que fue visto por el científico italiano Antonio Raimondi, gran explorador del Perú. Sin embargo en el atlas de 1865 de Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán solo la parte alta aparece correctamente cartografiada, mientras que en la baja su confluencia con el Madre de Dios está equivocada y luego el río va a parar a un \"límite desconocido\". En la misma época el comercio de la cascarilla incentivó al loretano Faustino Maldonado a penetrar en las selvas de Madre de Dios. Maldonado perecería ahogado en los rápidos del río Madeira, pero sus compañeros sobrevivientes, al llegar a Manaos, establecieron definitivamente que el Inambari-Madre de Dios eran parte de la cuenca del Amazonas.\nRaimondi, quien había recorrido una parte del Inambari entre los ríos Coasa y San Gabán, lo cartografía correctamente en su atlas del Perú publicado en 1887, menos en la parte por debajo de los 500 metros sobre el nivel del mar.\nEn las negociaciones para fijar los límites entre Perú y Bolivia la pretensión boliviana era fijar la frontera en el Inambari, pero el laudo argentino de 1909 lo dejaría íntegramente en territorio peruano. Luego con el auge del caucho es íntegramente explorado a la búsqueda de las preciosas heveas y la Dirección de Fomento de Lima lo lotiza en concesiones gomeras, Las más grandes serían las otorgadas a la Sociedad Gomera Marcapata, con 52,101 hectáreas y a la Société Pacifique-Amazone con 30 000 hectáreas[5]​\nLos indígenas de la región no se salvarían del brutal tratamiento que los caucheros les reservaban cuando los explotaban como mano de obra. Su casi completa desaparición de la cuenca del Inambari, ya bien entrado el siglo XX, seguramente se debió a esto y a las enfermedades introducidas por los foráneos. Muchas fotos de 1930 atestiguan de la existencia en la región de indios Guarayos (Ese'ejja), pero ya no están allí. Los indígenas del Inambari fueron agrupados por los frailes dominicos en su misión del lago Valencia, en Madre de Dios, donde la mayor parte murieron rápidamente de enfermedades contagiosas.\nGeografía[editar]\nEl río Inambari tiene una longitud aproximada de 437 km. Sus fuentes están en el Nevado Ananea (5,829 m) de la Cordillera de Apolobamba, en la provincia de Sandía, donde se originan los ríos Sandía, Quiaca y Sina.[6]​ Estos dos últimos forman el Huari Huari, el que al confluir con el Sandía forma el Inambari a la altura del poblado de San José. Cuando el Inambari encuentra un contrafuerte montañoso que varía entre los 1,000 y 3,000 m de altura y es parte del Parque Nacional Bahuaja Sonene, vira en ángulo recto hacia el noroeste. El Inambari recibe por su margen izquierda muchos afluentes, que se originan en los nevados de la cordillera de Carabaya, de los que los cuales los más importantes son el Pacchari, el Quitún (formado por el Usicayos y el Limbani), el Upina, el Tambillo y el San Gabán. Este último aporta un tercio del caudal del Inambari a partir de su confluencia. A una altura de 370 metros sobre el nivel del mar (msnm) recibe por su margen izquierda el río Araza o Marcapata, el cual nuevamente aporta un tercio del caudal.Inmediatamente después corta la Cordillera Oriental Andina por una estrecha garganta, antes de salir a la llanura amazónica. Esta garganta está en el límite tripartito de las regiones de Puno, Cusco y Madre de Dios. En este lugar el Inambari es franqueado por dos puentes, correspondientes a dos ramales de la Carretera Transoceánica que une al Brasil con el Océano Pacífico: el Puente Inambari en el ramal que va al Cusco y el Puente Otorongo, en el ramal que va a Juliaca. Allí su caudal promedio varía ente 500 y 1,400 m³ por segundo, en julio y febrero respectivamente.[7]​Luego recorrerá 150 km para unirse con el río Madre de Dios, en Boca Inambari a 210 msnm,[8]​ ya en la provincia de Tambopata. En gran parte de su recorrido el Inambari forma el límite sur de la zona de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Bahuaja Sonene, uno de los \"puntos calientes\" (hotspots) de biodiversidad más importantes del planeta.\nGeología[editar]\nLa cuenca del Inambari contiene una serie de secuencias de sedimentos derivados de la erosión de los flancos orientales de los Andes. Contiene importantes depósitos de gravas auríferas. El oro proviene de pizarras y esquistos erosionados de las partes altas de la cordillera de Sandía. En la confluencia con el río San Gabán hay cientos de metros de sedimentos fluviales no consolidados que van desde conglomerados hasta arcillas. La topografía actual podría tener solo 10,000 años de antigüedad.[9]​ La garganta del Inambari está en la faja subandina conformada por rocas sedimentarias del Mesozoico (entre 100 y 65.5 millones de años de antigüedad) y del Cenozoico (menos de 65.5 millones de años de antigüedad), cubiertas de aluviones. Las rocas predominantes en ambas márgenes son areniscas cuarzosas, limolitas y lutitas. Los depósitos cuaternarios provienen de antiguos aluviones depositados por gigantescas avenidas.[10]​\nLa zona más estrecha está constituida por rocas de la formación Vivian, representada por una alternancia de areniscas cuarzosas y areniscas limoníticas, con estratos perpendiculares al cauce del río. Desde el punto de vista sísmico está en la zona de intensidad V de la escala de Mercalli Modificada.[11]​\nZonas ecológicas de la cuenca[editar]\nLa cuenca del Inambari varía desde una altura de más de 5,000 msnm (metros sobre el nivel del mar), con una temperatura promedio del aire entre 16°C, hasta 230 msnm con una temperatura promedio de 32°C. Las precipitaciones anuales son menores a 500 mm por encima de los 3,000 m debido a un efecto de sombra orográfica, causado por las montañas que bloquean las lluvias que vienen del oriente, pero llegan a un total anual promedio de 6,119 mm en San Gabán, a 640 msnm, con un máximo de 2,359 mm en enero y un mínimo de 44 mm en julio,[12]​ pero tendrían una tendencia a aumentar según un estudio hecho para el proyecto de central hidroeléctrica del Inambari. Bosques nublados cubren la mayor parte de la zona entre 2,000 y 3,000 msnm, con gran abundancia de epifitas.La zona entre 1,000 y 2,000 m está cubierta por bosque húmedo montano exuberante y tiene numerosos manantiales y cascadas, y una densa vegetación ribereña. La zona entre 500 y 1,000 m está totalmente expuesta a los vientos provenientes del este y por lo tanto la precipitación es mayor que en otras partes de la cuenca, incluyendo las zonas más bajas. Está cubierta por bosque montano que incluye muchas especies que se encuentran en las partes bajas de la Amazonía. Cuando el río entra a la llanura amazónica su curso es trenzado (formado por canales entrelazados). Allí el río alcanza un ancho de 300 m incluyendo su planicie aluvial, y puede llegar hasta 7 m de profundidad en la estación de lluvias, en la que lleva aguas muy turbias.[13]​ La planicie aluvial tiene un bosque inundable y muchos aguajales donde crece la palmera Mauritia flexuosa. Esta es un área de alta biodiversidad pero está ahora muy depredada por la minería informal del oro.\nLas zonas ecológicas de la cuenca del Inambari se pueden resumir en le cuadro siguiente:[14]​\nZonas de vida\nÁrea (km²)\n%\nNival-Subtropical 1,130 5.5\nTundra pluvial-Alpino Subtropical 684 3.4\nPáramo pluvial-Subalpino subtropical 6,654 32.6\nBosque pluvial-Subtropical 2,286 11.2\nBosque pluvial-Montano bajo subtropical 639 3.1\nBosque pluvial-Montano subtropical 2,888 14.2\nBosque húmedo-Montano bajo subtropical 784 3.8\nBosque muy húmedo-subtropical 1,184 5.8\nBosque muy húmedo-Montano subtropical 1,386 6.8\nBosque pluvial-Subtropical transicional a bosque muy húmedo subtropical 2.353 11,5\nBosque muy húmedo-Subtropical transicional a bosque húmedo tropical/subtropical 411 2,0\nTOTAL 20.399 100\nHábitats acuáticos[editar]\nLos hábitats acuáticos de la Amazonía, al pie de los Andes, son zonas muy complejas en términos ecológicos. La cuenca del Inambari podría contener 17 de los 20 tipos de humedales reconocidos por la Convención de Ramsar.[13]​ Esto debido a su descenso desde los glaciares y punas hasta la llanura amazónica, atravesando muchos nichos ecológicos. Como hipótesis de trabajo, puesto de que recién en 2012 se han comenzado a hacer algunos estudios científicos de la cuenca, estos hábitats serían:\n- Ríos y quebradas permanentes: Desde arroyos de menos 20 m de ancho hasta el bajo Inambari, el que puede tener hasta 5 canales. Sus últimos 100 km son muy trenzados y tienen gran número de islas, con una consiguiente gran longitud de orillas. Esta característica está, en general, positivamente correlacionada con una gran biodiversidad acuática.\n- Ríos y quebradas estacionales: En todas las elevaciones numerosos cursos de agua fluyen solamente en la época de lluvias y en los 3 a 7 meses subsiguientes.\n- Lagos permanentes de agua dulce: En las alturas superiores a los 4,500 m hay varios cientos de lagunas glaciares. En la llanura amazónica existen las cochas o lagunas provenientes de meandros que han sido cortados y aislados. Estas no corresponderían exactamente a lagos en la clasificación de Ramsar ya que están en zonas inundables y tienen praderas flotantes.\n- Lagos estacionales de agua dulce: Son antiguos lagos glaciares, que existen sobre todo en la meseta de Macusani.\n- Lagos permanentes alcalinos: Se supone que existen en la parte alta de la cuenca. Los lagos alcalinos están asociados con una fauna altamente especializada y con baja biodiversidad.\n- Lagos o zonas inundadas estacionales alcalinos: Podrían existir en la zona de Macusani, que no ha sido estudiada, y su alcalinidad provendría de evaporitas o sedimentos minerales solubles en agua, reliquias de antiguos fondos marinos.\n- Pantanos y charcas alcalinos permanentes.\n- Pantanos y charcas alcalinos estacionales.\n- Pantanos y charcas de agua dulce permanentes: Se encuentran en las tierras bajas, a menudo en los aguajales. Se renuevan con las inundaciones.\n- Pantanos y charcas de agua dulce estacionales.\n- Turberas no boscosas: Se encuentran en general por encima de los 3,700 m y son mantenidas por aguas subterráneas. La composición de estas aguas puede variar de muy ácidas a muy alcalinas.\n- Humedales alpinos: Incluyen praderas alpinas y aguas temporales del deshielo. Se encuentran por encima de los 4,500 m a lo largo de la cordillera de Carabaya.\n- Pantanos con vegetación arbustiva: Estarían presentes en muchas de las pequeñas planicies aluviales de los ríos y arroyos de las yungas altas, con arbustos adaptados a las inundaciones periódicas. Existen en las planicies aluviales de las zonas bajas, a menudo mezclados con pastos altos, como el Gynerium. Los arbustos también dominan las playas y orillas de las zonas bajas.\n- Humedales boscosos de agua dulce: Existen sobre todo en las zonas inundables de las partes bajas, en los últimos 100 km. Están siendo seriamente afectados por la minería del oro.\n- Manantiales de agua dulce: Abundantes en las zonas andinas de alta precipitación.\n- Humedales geotérmicos: Se supone que existen en varios lugares de la cuenca. Aguas Calientes, cerca de Marcapata, tiene aguas termales utilizadas por la población. No hay estudios de su flora y fauna.\n- Humedales subterráneos: Están asociados con rocas calizas disueltas por las aguas ácidas. Algunas cuevas han sido exploradas por arqueólogos, donde se han encontrado pinturas rupestres, pero sus aguas no han sido estudiadas.\nCalidad del agua del río[editar]\nPara hacer el estudio de impacto ambiental del proyecto hidroeléctrico Inambari se establecieron 12 estaciones de muestreo[14]​ los que se compararon con los Estándares Nacionales de Calidad del Agua para los ríos de la selva. Se encontró que en la época de lluvias y la seca la mayoría de los valores encontrados de ph, oxígeno disuelto, sólidos totales suspendidos, demanda bioquímica de oxígeno, etc. estaban aproximadamente dentro de los estándares, pero tanto en la época húmeda como en la seca se encontraron altas concentraciones de plomo, cobre y zinc en algunas estaciones, probablemente producto de la actividad minera.\nPeces de la cuenca del Inambari[editar]\nLos principales grupos de peces que se encuentran en la cuenca del Inambari son los carácidos (Characiformes), bagres (Siluriformes), peces eléctricos o macanas (Gymnotiformes), cíclidos y corvinas (Perciformes), anguilas de pantano o atingas (Synbranchiformes), killifish (Cyprinodontiformes), anchovetas (Engrauliformes), peces aguja (Beloniformes), rayas (Myliobatiformes)y truchas introducidas(Salmoniformes), formando un total de 9 órdenes y 33 familias de peces indígenas. Se sabe que los carácidos, bagres, peces eléctricos, cíclidos y la trucha se encuentran por encima de los 350 msnm. Es decir hay solo 4 órdenes de peces nativos, formadas por 13 familias, 50 géneros y unas 70 especies. La mayoría de estos géneros tiene una amplia distribución en la cuenca amazónica. La única especie endémica identificada en la cuenca del Inambari es un carachama: el Chaetostoma marcapatae (Loricariidae). Teniendo en cuenta que el río solo comienza a ser explorado científicamente hay esperanzas de encontrar más especies endémicas. A medida que la altitud aumenta la diversidad y la talla de las especies disminuye, pero la trucha se encuentra hasta los 4.000 m. En la parte baja los pescadores de Mazuko (360 msnm) reconocen la existencia de peces de mayor tamaño como el sábalo (Brycon amazonicus), el boquichico (Prochilodus nigricans), el zúngaro (Zungaro zungaro) y los bagres doncella y puma zúngaro (Pseudoplatystoma).[15]​\nMigraciones de peces[editar]\nLas migraciones de peces en la cuenca del Inambari no han sido estudiadas, pero por lo que se sabe de la cuenca del Madre de Dios existirían los tres tipos de migraciones mencionados más abajo.\nMigraciones de larga distancia[editar]\nLos bagres del tipo Goliat (género Brachyplatystoma) recorren grandes distancias en la cuenca amazónica. Seis especies son conocidas en la cuenca del Madre de Dios y son consumidas por los humanos. Dos de entre ellas, el dorado (Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii)) y la mota flemosa (Brachyplatystoma platynemum,) toman entre 18 y 24 meses para viajar desde el piedemonte andino hasta el estuario del Amazonas, un viaje que varía entre 3,700 y 5,500 km. Luego, al regresar para desovar, suben por el río Madeira y deben sortear los rápidos de la Cachoeira do Teotônio, cerca de Porto Velho. Los cardúmenes de dorados esperan hasta el comienzo de las lluvias en noviembre y diciembre para que haya suficiente agua para nadar contra la corriente. Los cardúmenes de mota flemosa llegan un mes más tarde y son más numerosos de enero a marzo. La construcción de las nuevas centrales hidroeléctricas de Santo Antônio y Jirau, cuyas represas bloquean el río muy probablemente significarán el fin de esta migración y la Cachoeira desaparecerá bajo el nuevo nivel del río. Actualmente los bagres llegan a las cuencas altas del Madre de Dios, del Beni, del Mamoré y del Guaporé cuando las aguas comienzan a bajar y la alimentación es más abundante, ya que las presas están más concentradas. Luego desovarán en el piedemonte andino cuando las grandes lluvias comienzan a caer. Investigaciones en el río Madre de Dios indican que desovan entre 200 y 400 m de elevación, pero el río Inambari no ha sido muestreado aún. Estudios genéticos de los dorados parecen demostrar que regresan a su lugar de nacimiento.\nCarácidos y otros bagres migratorios[editar]\nEn todos los tributarios grandes de las cuencas del Madeira se encuentran sábalos y boquichicos, peces altamente migratorios. también se encuentran grandes bagres, como los zúngaros, doncellas, puma zúngaros y achacubos (Surubimichthys planiceps), los que se sabe que migran en los ríos de la Amazonía, pero, por falta de investigación, sus movimientos no han sido documentados en el Inambari. La doncella desova a alturas de 1,000 msnm, en aguas rápidas y claras.\nMigraciones locales entre la llanura amazónica y el piedemonte andino en el Inambari[editar]\nPor falta de estudios solo se puede suponer que al menos dos especies relativamente grandes, el sábalo macho (Salminus maxillosus) y la ashara (Aguarunichtys torosus) desovan en el piedemonte del Alto Madre de Dios.\nImpactos humanos en los ecosistemas acuáticos de la cuenca del Inambari[editar]\nLa minería del oro, cuya presión se ha acentuado en los últimos años a raíz del aumento del precio de dicho metal, es la que más afecta la cuenca del Inambari. Comienza en las cabeceras, en las montañas de Sandía, y alcanza muy altos niveles más abajo de Mazuko. Miles de personas la practican, artesanalmente o con maquinaria pesada. Sus impactos más graves son la descarga de miles de toneladas de sedimentos en el río, la deforestación masiva de las riberas y las descargas incontroladas de mercurio. Si se construye el proyecto hidroeléctrico del Inambari (ver más abajo) tendría un gran impacto sobre los flujos de sedimentos y de mercurio originados por la actividad minera, pero también muchos otros como la modificación de los pulsos del río, una deforestación acelerada de la cuenca y la eliminación de las migraciones de peces Otro impacto, sobre el cual no se tiene mayor información, es la fabricación ilegal de pasta básica de cocaína, cuyos insumos tóxicos normalmente se vierten en ríos y arroyos. Las áreas de cultivo de coca han estado aumentando en los últimos años, sobre todo por encima de los 500 msnm, en San Gabán y al norte de Sandía. Por otro lado la extensión de la frontera agrícola, causada por la construcción de la carretera Interoceánica, también tiene un impacto ambiental que aún no ha sido evaluado. La minería de uranio a tajo abierto en Macusani, en la parte alta de la cuenca, por parte de mineras canadienses y por el momento en etapa de exploración, también tendría un impacto devastador sobre la ecología del río, fuera de poner en peligro de destrucción miles de pinturas rupestres existentes en los cañones de esa zona.\nFlora de la cuenca[editar]\nEl botánico Ramón Ferreyra hizo una lista de algunas de las especies más representativas de la cuenca del Inambari e indica que hay allí muchos endemismos en su libro \"Flora y vegetación del Perú\".[16]​ Algunas de las especies que menciona son:\n- Entre los 3.000 y 4.200 m, el ichu y la chilihua y otras herbáceas, la espectacular Puya weberbaueri, la umbelífera Eryngium rauhianum, cuyo tronco florífero tiene 2 m de alto y cuyas hojas de disposición arrosetada son muy largas y dentadas, y arbustos como el Solanum sandianum y la Monnina acutifolia. Las laderas rocosas están cubiertas de líquenes blancos.\n- Entre los 2.000 y 3.000 m, un estrato herbáceo y arbustivo (Piper sandianum y Clusia sandiensis, entre otros), y una gran variedad de especies entre las cuales están la Castilleja communis y la Jacobinia mendax.\n- Entre los 1.500 y 2.000 m, una vegetación lujuriante y perennifolia. Menciona piperáceas como la Peperomia blanda y la tuna congona, arbustos como la Triumfetta mollissima y el Viburnum reticulatum, árboles como el ajo ajo (Cordia alliodora), la amasisa (Erythrina ulei), palmeras como la Wettinia weberbaueri, helechos arbóreos como el Cyathea caracasana var. boliviensis, y múltiples epifitas.\nPara evaluación del impacto ambiental del proyecto de la hidroeléctrica del Inambari[17]​ se hicieron una serie de estudios sobre la flora de la región concentrándose en un área de 88,000 hectáreas (ha) definida como el área de influencia directa de la hidroeléctrica. Se hizo una clasificación zonal según su cobertura vegetal:\n- Bosque de montañas: Crecen en cerros escarpados cortados por quebradas, donde se encuentran las siguientes especies: Ficus crassiuscula, Inga altissima, Inga chartacea, Inga feuillei, Inga marginata, Jacaranda copaia, Miconia ternatifolia, Myrica policarpo, etc. A medida que la altura aumenta los árboles son más bajos y más delgados, musgos y epifitas proliferan debido a la permanencia de una cobertura nubosa.\n- Bosque de terrazas: Existente sobre todo en la cuenca del río Araza, se desarrolla sobre terrazas planas de origen aluvial de 5 a 10 m de altura. En él se encuentran las siguientes especies: Brosimum alicastrum, Brosimum lactescens, Brosimum rubescens, Clarisia biflora, Erythrina sp., Ficus crassiuscula, Guarea trichiloide, Hura crepitans, Inga sp., etc.\n- Bosques de colinas: Los bosques de colinas bajas se desarrollan sobre laderas producto de la erosión hasta alturas de aproximadamente 80 m sobre el nivel de los ríos. Tienen un sotobosque ralo y presencia de la palmera irapay (Lepidocaryum tesmanni). Los bosques de colinas altas se encuentran en alturas de entre 80 y 300 m sobre el nivel de los ríos, con pendientes de 30 a 70%. Pueden tener árboles hasta de 35 m de alto con abundantes lianas. En él se encuentran las siguientes especies: Inga splendens, Inga chartacea, Inga feuillei, Hevea brasiliensis, Protium apiculatum, Cecropia ciadophylla, Ceiba sp., Clarisia sp., etc.\n- Bosque aluvial inundable: Se distribuye a lo largo de las orillas del Inambari, Araza y tributarios y su área es relativamente pequeña. Está sujeto a periódicas inundaciones. Su estrato dominante es de 15 a 20 m de altura y el sotobosque es muy denso, con arbustos y lianas, lo que hace el tránsito difícil. Especies que se encuentran allí son: Cecropia membranosa, Clarisia racemosa, Callycophyllum sp., Guazuma crinita, Triplaris americana (que vive en simbiosis con colonias de hormigas), etc.\nFauna terrestre[editar]\nA la gran variedad de zonas ecológicas corresponde una gran variedad de fauna. Así en la cuenca alta y en la cuenca media se encuentra una gran variedad de anuros, ranas, lagartijas y serpientes, y de aves y mamíferos como el puma y la taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis). En la cuenca baja y media la vecindad del Parque Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene, uno de los más biodiversos del planeta, hace que el Inambari comparta gran cantidad de su fauna. Esto significa que hay docenas de especies de anfibios y reptiles,[18]​ cientos de especies de aves[19]​ y en mamíferos múltiples especies de murciélagos y monos, tapires, venados y jaguares entre otros muchos.\nLa consultora ECSA hizo un muestreo de fauna para el estudio de impacto ambiental (EIA) del proyecto hidroeléctrico del Inambari.[17]​ en el área de influencia directa del proyecto, tanto en la estación húmeda como en la seca y encontró muchas docenas de familias de artrópodos, hasta 66 en un punto de muestreo, siendo la orden Díptera la que más familias presentó, mientras que en porcentaje de individuos los más numerosos han sido los de la orden Hymenóptera, con su familia Formicidae (hormigas, un importante elemento de los ecosistemas tropicales).\nTambién se registraron Anopheles sp., zancudos vectores del paludismo y Lutzomyia sp., mosquito vector de la uta, pero no hay estudios actualizados sobre la incidencia de estas enfermedades en la región.\nEn la herpetofauna se registraron 36 especies de anfibios y 17 de reptiles, entre las cuales 7 registradas en categoría de conservación como las ranas \"venenosas\" Ameerega simulans y Ameerega macero, el caimán Paleosuchus trigonatus y la boa esmeralda Corallus canina y especies emblemáticas como la serpiente venenosa más grande de América del Sur, la shushupe (Lachesis muta).\nLa ornitofauna es extremadamente rica y variada. Para el EIA se establecieron 12 estaciones de muestreo, las que registraron 203 especies de aves en la época seca y 193 en la de lluvias, resaltando en ambas épocas las familias Thamnophilidae (hormigueros), Tyrannidae (mosqueros) e Icteridae (páucares). La presencia de estas familias en números importantes indican que los ecosistemas aún están saludables. Se registraron 15 especies migratorias en la época húmeda y 3 en la época seca.\nOcho especies de esta zona están en registradas como en peligro o vulnerables, entre ellas el guacamayo azul y amarillo, el guacamayo escarlata, el tucán de garganta blanca, el paujil y el gallito de las rocas. Según los pobladores las especies altamente deseables para cazarlas son de las familias Tinamidae (perdices) y Cracidae (pavas). Loros y guacamayos también son deseables, para venderlos en el mercado internacional.\nSi se tiene en cuenta las cantidades de especies registradas en las reservas naturales alrededor de la cuenca del Inambari: 190 en la Reserva de la Biosfera del Manu, 105 en la Reserva Nacional Tambopata Candamo y 150 en la Estación Biológica de Cocha Cashu, en la cuenca del Inambari deberían existir más de 100 especies de mamíferos.\nEl EIA hizo un estudio sobre la mastofauna en el área de influencia del proyecto, la que varía entre 400 y 900 m de altura, correspondiendo a un bosque tropical húmedo que ha sufrido diversos grados de intervención humana. Se establecieron 12 estaciones de muestreo, tanto en bosque primario denso como en bosque secundario y se identificaron 74 especies de mamíferos grandes, medianos y pequeños, entre ellas 8 especies de monos, 3 de cérvidos, 6 de felinos, incluyendo jaguares y pumas, tapires, nutrias de río, el raro perro de monte (Speothos venaticus), etc. La población no caza mucho, pero las especies más perseguidas son el venado colorado (Mazama americana), la huangana (Tayassu pecari), el sajino (Pecari tayacu), el añuje (Dasyprocta sp.) y el picuro (Cuniculus paca).[20]​\nPoblación humana[editar]\nDe acuerdo al censo nacional del 2007,[21]​ extrapolado al 2013, la población fija de la cuenca del Inambari, por debajo de los 550 msnm, es decir la altura de Puerto Manoa, sería de alrededor de 7,000 personas, de las cuales 4,000 viven en Mazuko y sus alrededores, sobre la carretera Interoceánica, y unos 800 en Puerto Carlos/Santa Rosa. A ello habría que agregarle solo en la zona de La Pampa (abajo de Mazuko) una población flotante de buscadores de oro de unas 30,700 personas, a principios del 2013 (según un informe de inteligencia policial)[22]​ la que vive en campamentos a lo largo de la carretera y que está depredando toda la región, destruyendo completamente la cobertura vegetal, derribando árboles de hasta 20 m de alto, botando el suelo vegetal a ríos y quebradas, cegándolas, y vertiendo mercurio por doquier. Según la Asociación para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Integral (AIDER) entre el 2010 y junio de 2013 la minería informal ha deforestado 19,500 hectáreas incluyendo más de 3,000 dentro de la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Nacional del Tambopata.\nEntre los 550 y 1,500 msnm no hay cifras oficiales de población pero vivirían entre 1,000 y 2,000 personas en una zona sin carreteras, cultivando coca y frutas, y extrayendo oro. Las comunicaciones con el exterior son por botes y por caminos de herradura que van a las puntas de las carreteras que se dirigen a poblados como Limbani, Esquena, Coasa y Ayapata. El lugar llamado Paco Pacuni, en la boca del río Limbani, es uno de los terminales de los botes que vienen de Pampa Yanamayo. Río abajo de Paco Pacuni estuvo la célebre mina de oro de Santo Domingo. Según el INEI en el Alto Inambari, por encima de los 1,500 msnm vivirían unas 9,000 personas. Allí las poblaciones principales son Masiapo y Pampa Yanamayo, donde está el terminal de la carretera que viene de Sandía y Juliaca.\nLa gran mayoría de la población son colonos andinos, de origen quechua y aymara, sobre todo procedentes de Cusco y Puno. Con el auge del oro han llegado negociantes y mineros brasileños, coreanos y chinos, y con el de la coca colonos de Huánuco y de la provincia de La Mar (Ayacucho). Las únicas poblaciones nativas pertenecen a la familia lingüística harakmbut en Boca Inambari (115 personas aproximadamente) y en Arazaire, cerca de Huepetuhe (95 personas aproximadamente).[23]​\nLa minería del oro[editar]\nLos yacimientos auríferos económicamente explotables son yacimientos secundarios aluviales, denominados placeres de piedemonte o llanura. En los de piedemonte las leyes de mineral varían de 200 a 250 mg Au/m³. En la llanura, en los sedimentos de playas y ríos la mineralización se distribuye en forma horizontal o \"corridos\", con leyes de 1 a 2 g Au/m³, en la fracciones más gruesas o \"cabeceras\" y de 300 a 500 mg Au/m³ en las \"colas\".[24]​\nEl río del oro[editar]\nDesde la época de los Incas y quizás desde antes, el oro ha sido explotado en la cuenca del Inambari, por lo menos en las cabeceras. Misioneros franciscanos de paso en 1677 habían escrito: \"Indios Araona de la montaña de Carabaya fueron vasallos del Inca del Cusco, a donde llevaban el tributo de oro que llaman vio y de plata, cipiro y plumas, y otras cosa de valor de esta tierra\"[25]​\nEl cosmógrafo mayor Francisco Antonio Cosme Bueno y Alegre publicó en 1759-1776 una descripción de las provincias del Perú por orden del virrey José Antonio Manso de Velasco. En ella menciona la provincia de Sangaban, de donde se habían extraído 33 millones de pesos de oro, sin contar los no declarados. Inclusive se había encontrado una pepita en forma de cabeza de caballo que pesó 4 arrobas y libras. Fue hallada en el lavadero de oro de Inahuaya (hoy Yanahuaya) por los fundadores de la Villa Imperial de San Juan del Oro, hacia 1553 y enviada como regalo a Carlos V. Otra, del tamaño de la cabeza de un hombre, fue enviada a Felipe II, pero desafortunadamente se hundió con el galeón que la llevaba en el canal de las Bahamas.[26]​\nEn 1748 el marino sevillano Antonio de Ulloa, quien había venido al Perú en la expedición científica encargada de medir el arco del meridiano, liderada por Charles de la Condamine, visitó Carabaya e indicó en su informe que el territorio de ese Corregimiento se extendía hasta el río Inambari, el que lo separaba del territorio de los indios \"gentiles\"(no cristianos). En él se lavaba oro y el tributo al rey se cancelaba en las Cajas Reales de Poto (hoy Potoni).[27]​\nYa en la época republicana el científico Antonio Raimondi visitó Sandía, San Gabán y el río Inambari en 1864 y señaló sus ricos lavaderos de oro. En 1890 el campesino Mariano Quispe descubrió una pepita de oro de 1.3 kg en una quebrada del río Quitún y se la mostró los comerciantes de Macusani Francisco Velasco y Manuel Estrada. Estos lo convencieron de que les revelara donde la había encontrado y le ofrecieron cuatro vacas por la pepita (nunca le pagaron). Estrada y Velasco instalaron un molino de oro primitivo en el lugar que luego vendieron por US$210,000 a los norteamericanos W. L. Hardison y Chester Brown, los que fundaron la Inca Mining.\nLa Inca Mining recibió del gobierno peruano una concesión de 810,000 hectáreas a lo largo del río Tambopata, a cambio de la construcción de un camino de herradura desde Tirapata, una estación del tren Puno-Cusco, hasta Astillero, un lugar donde el río ya es navegable. La parte más larga de este camino de todas maneras debía ser construido por la Inca Mining para sacar sus oro. La compañía lo utilizó para acceder a sus concesiones de caucho que explotaba bajo la denominación Inca Rubber. Su gran mina de Santo Domingo produjo en 1903 el equivalente de 25,000 libras esterlinas y en 1904 ya producía casi la mitad de toda la producción de oro peruana. Fue definitivamente abandonada hacia 1950.[28]​\nDespués de las exacciones cometidas contra pueblos indígenas en la época del caucho los remanentes fueron reagrupados con algunos colonos andinos en misiones dominicas y algunos se dedicaron a lavar oro en la cuenca baja. Hubo una \"fiebre del oro\" entre 1930 y 1950 pero la explotación artesanal solo despegó después de la construcción en 1965 de la carretera Cusco-Quince Mil-Puerto Maldonado, la que facilitó la inmigración proveniente de la Sierra.\nNo hay estadísticas sobre la evolución de la producción de oro solo para la cuenca del Inambari (y las que existen para Madre de Dios son ciertamente incompletas). Aznar y Luna mencionan que en 1971 las playas del río Madre de Dios habían producido solo 2 kg de oro pero que en 1973 produjeron 600 kg y en 1975 ya producían el 30% de toda la producción del Perú[29]​\nEl aumento de la producción atrajo más colonos y grandes empresas, inclusive de capitales ingleses, norteamericanos y griegos. Esos diversos intereses a veces entraron en conflicto por el control de los recursos. En 1972 el gobierno militar del general Juan Velasco Alvarado suspendió el otorgamiento de concesiones mineras y encargó toda la prospección al Banco Minero, propiedad del estado. Más tarde otorgó el monopolio de la compra de oro al mismo banco. Como los precios que ofrecía eran más bajos que los del mercado, la mayor parte del oro era vendido en el mercado negro o en Brasil y Bolivia. Además se manipularon las leyes para favorecer a ciertos grupos impidiendo la formalización de miles de pequeños mineros.Las subcuencas más afectadas por la minería, como lo son hasta ahora, fueron las de Huaypetuhe y Caychihue, afluentes del Inambari.\nLa caída del precio del oro en 1983 de US$500 a US$350 por onza retrajo las inversiones y la inmigración.\nEl oro en Madre de Dios en la actualidad (2000-2013)[editar]\nEl aumento del precio del oro, valor refugio, después de las crisis financieras de este siglo en los países industrializados, hasta niveles de US$1,900 por onza y la construcción de la carretera Interoceánica que une la frontera brasileña con Puno y Cusco han lanzado una inmigración masiva de unos 15,000 buscadores de oro de la cordillera de los Andes hacia Madre de Dios con devastadoras consecuencias. Unas 20,000 hectáreas (ha) habrían sido deforestadas a la fecha (junio de 2013) y 200,000 ha más degradadas en las cuencas de los ríos Araza, Inambari y Madre de Dios[30]​ y allí donde había una magnífica selva de árboles gigantes ahora solo queda un desierto absoluto, contaminado con mercurio.\nSe trabaja empíricamente, sin ningún estudio previo y es seguro que una parte del oro queda en los residuos, así como el zircón que también tiene valor y no se recupera. Se elimina toda la capa de suelo vegetal con bombas de agua de alta presión y la tierra así extraída se trata en lavaderos primitivos. También se usan modernas excavadoras y cargadores frontales financiadas por los compradores de oro. Para explotar el fondo de los ríos se usan dragas de succión.[31]​ En las riberas del río Inambari unas 8,000 hectáreas están siendo explotadas y ambas riberas están concesionadas por el Ministerio de Energía y Minas, con denuncios titulados o en trámite. La criminalidad, el trabajo infantil y la prostitución de menores proliferan. No se sabe exactamente cuanto oro se extrae del área pero sí que son solo tres grandes empresas las que lo compran, a través de múltiples tiendas, sobre todo en Puerto Maldonado, donde el oro se recupera quemando la amalgama de mercurio en ambientes altamente contaminados y extremadamente peligrosos para la salud.\nEn 2010 y en 2012 el gobierno peruano lanzó sendas ofensivas para restaurar la legalidad en la zona, pero sin darse los recursos financieros y humanos necesarios. Lógicamente ambas fracasaron frente a la decidida resistencia de los mineros quienes disponían de considerables fondos de lucha y eran ayudados por la corrupción generalizada al nivel de las instituciones del Estado.[32]​\nEn 2012 el gobierno emitió cuatro decretos legislativos, prohibiendo la minería ilegal y para luchar contra la criminalidad asociada a ella, pero ha dado un plazo hasta abril de 2014 para que los mineros se formalicen.\nMientras tanto la explotación del territorio se ha exacerbado y una investigación del Carnegie Institute de la Universidad de Stanford ha encontrado que el mercurio contamina gran parte de la cadena alimenticia de Madre de Dios: 9 especies de peces de 15 analizadas contienen metilmercurio en niveles superiores a los permitidos por los estándares internacionales y el nivel promedio de mercurio hallado en el cabello de una muestra de 226 adultos en Puerto Maldonado es el triple de los límites permisibles.[33]​\nLa compañía norteamericana Viking Minerals tiene una concesión de 1,800 hectáreas en la zona de Puerto Manoa y proyecta explotar depósitos aluviales auríferos sobre el río mismo. Considera que la rentabilidad estaría asegurada explotando los 8 metros superficiales.\nLa compañía financiera Global M&A Partners ha estimado que en el año 2011 la minería ilegal de oro del Perú valía US$1,800 millones, que tuvo un beneficio neto de US$1,000 millones y que el Estado peruano dejó de percibir US$305 millones en impuestos. De las 16 toneladas de oro producidas por la minería informal en el Perú aproximadamente 70% provinieron de Madre de Dios.[34]​ En el 2013 Madre de Dios estaría produciendo unos 800 kg de oro mensuales según el Ministerio de Energía y Minas. La producción habría disminuido con relación al 2012 a causa de la destrucción de dragas ilegales por intervención policial.\nProducción de oro en el Perú según la Sociedad Nacional de Minería, Petróleo y Energía:\n\nToneladas\n2011\n2012\nPerú 163.8 156.4\nMadre de Dios 22.6 10.2\nPuno 3.0 3.9\nLa coca[editar]\nEl cultivo de coca en la cuenca del Inambari data probablemente de antes de los Incas. El cacique José Gabriel Condorcanqui Túpac Amaru Inga, quien se rebeló contra el gobierno colonial español en 1780, mantenía plantaciones en la zona de San Gabán.[35]​ En la parte alta del Inambari (incluyendo el Tambopata y el río Lanza en la frontera con Bolivia) había 3,610 hectáreas plantadas de coca en 2011 (5.8% del total del Perú). Es una zona productora de pasta básica de cocaína la mayor parte de la cual se va a Bolivia donde los precios son más altos. Pampa Yanamayo es uno de los centros de producción importantes. También hay pistas de aterrizaje clandestinas. En esta zona los cultivos de coca siguen avanzando y habrían incluso invadido una franja del Parque Nacional Bahuaja Sonene. El uso sistemático de pesticidas y herbicidas tiene un efecto nefasto sobre la flora y la fauna de la zona.\nTambién hay por lo menos 843 hectáreas de coca entre la confluencia del río San Gabán con el Inambari y Loromayo cerca de Mazuko, sobre todo cultivada por inmigrantes venidos de los ríos Apurímac y Ene.[36]​ En esta zona les falta mano de obra, sobre todo a causa de los lavaderos de oro. En toda la cuenca la superficie cultivada con coca está creciendo.\nLos proyectos hidroeléctricos[editar]\nLa empresa brasileña EGASUR ha hecho el estudio de factibilidad para una hidroeléctrica en la garganta del Inambari, con la cota de la represa a 503 msnm y una potencia instalada de 2,200 megavatios (MW). Ella requeriría una inversión en la central de US$4,556 millones (en US$ del 2013) que aumentaría a US$5,518 millones si se incluye la línea de transmisión hasta Porto Velho, Brasil, porque la idea inicial fue de exportar la mayor parte de la electricidad a ese país.\nLa central podría producir en promedio, anualmente, 12,719,500 megavatios hora (MWh) y tendría un embalse que anegaría 378 km².[37]​ La concesión fue anulada por el gobierno peruano debido a la resistencia de la población afectada por el proyecto (unas 4,000 personas) pero en algunas entidades gubernamentales hay aún hoy (2013) el sentimiento de que la hidroeléctrica debe construirse, ya no para exportar al Brasil, sino para abastecer un mercado peruano en rápido crecimiento y quizás para exportar electricidad a Chile.\nLa construcción de la central causaría la deforestación de unas 96,000 hectáreas, sobre todo causada por los inmigrantes hacia la zona en búsqueda de trabajo y por la muerte del bosque inundado. También emitiría unos 29 millones de toneladas de gases de efecto invernadero (en equivalente CO2) solo durante los primeros 35 años después del inicio de la construcción, y causaría una gran pérdida de biodiversidad, ya que el proyecto está al lado del Parque Nacional Bahuaja Sonene. Los costos ambientales para los primeros 35 años han sido evaluados, a valor presente, en US$1,383 millones, lo que haría el proyecto completamente negativo para la sociedad peruana.[38]​\nEsos costos están subestimados porque no se han considerado los costos de la destrucción de los ecosistemas del río; los del hollín de los incendios forestales causados por la inmigración, los que contribuyen al calentamiento global e impactan los pulmones de la población; los de la proliferación del paludismo y del dengue a causa de las aguas estancadas; los de las emisiones de óxidos de nitrógeno, etc. Por el contrario el proyecto sería muy rentable para los inversionistas (si las tarifas de electricidad peruanas aumentan como se espera) y para las compañías constructoras.\nHay también en estudio, por empresas peruanas, la construcción río arriba de otras tres centrales llamadas Nueva Esperanza 1, 2 y 3 sumando 380 MW, y en el río Sandía dos centrales más sumando 315 MW. Todas por encima de los 900 msnm.[39]​\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1609-1945). Los Comentarios Reales de los Incas. Ed. Buenos Aires.\n↑ HOSTNIG R.(2010). Carabaya. Paisajes y cultura milenaria. Municipalidad Provincial de Carabaya y Gobierno del Vorarlberg, Austria. Lima.\n↑ ARMENTIA N. (1903). Relación histórica de las misiones franciscanas de Apolobamba. Imprenta del estado. La Paz.\n↑ Archivo Histórico de Límites. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Lima.\n↑ Dirección de Fomento (1903). Mapa de concesiones gomeras. Archivo General de Límites. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Lima.\n↑ Las aguas continentales de América Latina, de R. Ziesler y G.D. Ardizzone, 1979. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ad770b/AD770B06.htm.\n↑ INAMBARI GERAÇÃO DE ENERGIA S/A, ENGEVIX y SyZ (2010). Central Hidrelétrica Inambari. Estudio de Factibilidad. 2.ª etapa-Reporte Final.\n↑ Mapa al 1/100.000 del Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN). Hoja \"Laberinto\", 2945, 26-x\n↑ «http://www.viking-mineralsinc.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=8&Itemid=138».\n↑ INGEMMET. Carta Geológica Nacional 27-v.\n↑ Alva, Jorge et al. 1984. Distribución de máximas intensidades sísmicas observadas en el Perú. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 9 de octubre de 2010. Consultado el 2 de abril de 2012.\n↑ Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología (SENAMHI)\n↑ a b GOULDING M., BARTHEM R. et alia (2010). La Cuenca del río Inambari. Ambientes acuáticos, biodiversidad y represas. Widlife Conservation Society. Lima.\n↑ a b ECSA INGENIEROS y EGASUR (2011). Estudio de Impacto Ambiental Hidroeléctrica del Inambari. Lima. Disponible en http://dar.org.pe/eia_inambari.html Archivado el 5 de julio de 2012 en Wayback Machine..\n↑ GOULDING M., BARTHEM R. et alia (2010). La Cuenca del río Inambari. Ambientes acuáticos, biodiversidad y represas. Widlife Conservation Society. Lima.\n↑ FERREYRA R. (1986). Flora y vegetación del Perú. En \"Gran Geografía del Perú\". Manfer y Juan Mejía Baca, Barcelona.\n↑ a b ECSA INGENIEROS y EGASUR (2011). Obra citada\n↑ Carrillo e Icochea (1996) en EISA Corredor Vial Interoceánico Sur Perú-Brasil. http://www.mtc.gob.pe/portal/transportes/asuntos/proyectos/pvis/tramo_3/eisa/4.3.3_Herpetologia.pdf Archivado el 27 de febrero de 2012 en Wayback Machine.\n↑ SCHULENBERG T. et alia (2007). Birds of Peru. Princeton University Press.\n↑ EIA\n↑ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI)\n↑ Citado por el diario \"El Comercio\", Lima, 23/6/2013.\n↑ Mapa Amazonía Peruana 2009. Instituto del Bien Común, Lima.\n↑ GRADE (1994). Estudio de minería informal y medio ambiente. Zona de Madre de Dios.\n↑ Carta 13, IX, 1677, Maurtúa, V. M. (1906) 12:45. Juicio de Límites entre Perú y Bolivia. Buenos Aires, 12 vol.\n↑ COSME BUENO F. A. (1759-1776). Colección geográfica e histórica de los arzobispados y obispados del Reyno del Perú, con las descripciones de las provincias de su jurisdicción. Lima..\n↑ Rumrill R., Dávila Herrera C. y Barcia García, F. (1986). Madre de Dios, el Perú desconocido. CORDEMAD, Puerto Maldonado.\n↑ HOSTNIG R. (2010). Obra citada.\n↑ Aznar P. y Luna M. (1979). Estudio de los mineros migrantes que extraen oro en el departamento de Madre de Dios. Ministerio de Trabajo y Promoción Social-Centro Interamericano de Administración del Trabajo. Lima.\n↑ Comunicación personal de un asesor del ministro del Ambiente.\n↑ Mosquera C., Chávez M. L., Pachas V. H., Moschella P.(2009). Estudio diagnóstico de la actividad minera artesanal en Madre de Dios. Fundación Conservación Internacional. Lima.\n↑ RIVERO R. y DÍAZ A. (2012). La problemática minera y la experiencia del consultorio jurídico gratuito de la SPDA en Madre de Dios (2010-2011). Sociedad Peruana de Derecho Ambiental. Lima.\n↑ FERNÁNDEZ L. (2013). Proyecto de mercurio en ecosistemas de la Amazonía. En \"Confirman presencia de mercurio en seres humanos y peces\". Diario \"El Comercio\" 15 de marzo del 2013.\n↑ CALLAHAN C. y FRICOT J. (8 de julio del 2012). Peru Overview: Oil, Mining and Gas. Euro Pacific Capital Inc.\n↑ SZEMINSKI J. (1983). La utopía tupamarista. Lima.\n↑ UNODC y DEVIDA (2012). Perú. Monitoreo de cultivos de coca 2011. Lima.\n↑ SERRA VEGA j. (2010). Inambari: La urgencia de una discusión seria y nacional. Pros y contras de un proyecto hidroeléctrico. Pro Naturaleza. Lima.http://es.scribd.com/doc/45068277/Libro-INAMBARI-la-urgencia-de-una-discusion-seria-y-nacional-Por-Ing-Jose-Serra\n↑ SERRA VEGA J. et alia (2012). Costos y beneficios del proyecto hidroeléctrico del río Inambari. Conservation Strategy Fund. Sebastopol, California. http://conservation-strategy.org/sites/default/files/field-file/CSF_Inambari_II_02_01_2012.pdf\n↑ Ministerio de Energía y Minas (2013). Concesiones temporales. Lima.\nReferencias[editar]\nArchivos del Grupo Carabaya y su biblioteca virtual www.grupocarabaya.com.\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nSalvemos el inambari, con la polémica sobre los futuros proyectos hidroeléctricos.\nRiesgos sociales y ambientales de la diga en el Río Inambari\nExplotación de uranio en Carabaya\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q3087418\nMultimedia: Inambari River\nIdentificadores\nWorldCat\nVIAF: 315127362\nDatos: Q3087418\nMultimedia: Inambari River\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Río_Inambari&oldid=136900519»\nCategorías:\nAfluentes de Perú del río Madeira\nRíos del departamento de Cuzco\nRíos del departamento de Madre de Dios\nRíos del departamento de Puno\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos con datos por trasladar a Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos con coordenadas en Wikidata\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nCebuano\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nFrançais\nNorsk nynorsk\nRuna Simi\n中文\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 9 jul 2021 a las 17:22.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inambari","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:9ef9eb2f-a075-4401-9517-56000558d2be>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-block-digest":"sha1:VCGLYQP7222R4LUPOAHEOKLBI2B4XDHU","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:0c9f609e-dd28-4138-9d39-36431fd52567>","content-length":"56020","content-type":"text/plain","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:35:05Z"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.88920134},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93885726},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9987516},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.850612},{"label":"es","prob":0.98459005},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.980364},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8082112},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9493029},{"label":"es","prob":0.97239745},{"label":"es","prob":0.9893311},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9299652},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},{"label":"es","prob":0.9785499},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9493814},{"label":"es","prob":0.9980429},{"label":"es","prob":0.9589581},{"label":"es","prob":0.81420845},{"label":"es","prob":0.98946667},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9079116},{"label":"es","prob":0.8078413},{"label":"es","prob":0.94078755},{"label":"es","prob":0.89087766},{"label":"es","prob":0.9332407},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94416624},{"label":"es","prob":0.9060964},{"label":"es","prob":0.966603},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9938093},{"label":"es","prob":0.8738294},{"label":"es","prob":0.8786352},{"label":"es","prob":0.9208456},{"label":"es","prob":0.8367034},{"label":"es","prob":0.95790744},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9652198},{"label":"es","prob":0.97391695},{"label":"es","prob":0.9079397},{"label":"es","prob":0.95261765},{"label":"es","prob":0.95847654},{"label":"es","prob":0.9807047},{"label":"es","prob":0.9743424},{"label":"es","prob":0.9662327},{"label":"es","prob":0.96542585},{"label":"es","prob":0.9782458},{"label":"es","prob":0.9673939},{"label":"es","prob":0.980191},{"label":"es","prob":0.8525939},{"label":"es","prob":0.9621137},{"label":"es","prob":0.9158858},{"label":"es","prob":0.95300806},{"label":"es","prob":0.96018547},{"label":"es","prob":0.924701},{"label":"es","prob":0.9875797},{"label":"es","prob":0.97304845},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97364706},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8087666},{"label":"es","prob":0.944282},{"label":"es","prob":0.9087252},{"label":"es","prob":0.8724023},{"label":"es","prob":0.8109901},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.989543},{"label":"es","prob":0.9805084},{"label":"es","prob":0.98160046},{"label":"es","prob":0.9660733},{"label":"es","prob":0.874157},{"label":"es","prob":0.9588086},{"label":"es","prob":0.91123134},{"label":"es","prob":0.8040697},{"label":"es","prob":0.9286321},{"label":"es","prob":0.9776667},{"label":"es","prob":0.9321896},{"label":"es","prob":0.99788016},{"label":"es","prob":0.9649812},{"label":"es","prob":0.98933876},{"label":"es","prob":0.9833927},{"label":"es","prob":0.9284495},{"label":"es","prob":0.973368},{"label":"es","prob":0.98141295},{"label":"es","prob":0.9584334},{"label":"es","prob":0.9768372},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93517333},{"label":"es","prob":0.801835},{"label":"es","prob":0.9937145},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98086864},{"label":"es","prob":0.92258626},{"label":"es","prob":0.9755626},{"label":"es","prob":0.89035517},{"label":"es","prob":0.8617695},{"label":"es","prob":0.9187211},{"label":"es","prob":0.99066496},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9871539},{"label":"es","prob":0.95874524},{"label":"es","prob":0.952816},{"label":"es","prob":0.912466},{"label":"es","prob":0.98251927},{"label":"es","prob":0.9012979},{"label":"es","prob":0.80927277},{"label":"es","prob":0.9323792},{"label":"es","prob":0.9059337},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96207225},{"label":"es","prob":0.9823716},{"label":"es","prob":0.9807368},{"label":"es","prob":0.91957676},{"label":"es","prob":0.9480172},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795391},{"label":"es","prob":0.9574497},{"label":"es","prob":0.93439543},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9654468},{"label":"es","prob":0.9775802},{"label":"es","prob":0.9355324},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9190861},{"label":"es","prob":0.81183684},{"label":"es","prob":0.9825984},{"label":"es","prob":0.97679955},{"label":"es","prob":0.957932},{"label":"es","prob":0.94878733},{"label":"es","prob":0.9787348},{"label":"es","prob":0.97454894},{"label":"es","prob":0.9860273},{"label":"es","prob":0.9832724},{"label":"es","prob":0.98201215},{"label":"es","prob":0.93820447},{"label":"es","prob":0.97926253},{"label":"es","prob":0.98254776},{"label":"es","prob":0.97687614},{"label":"es","prob":0.97188437},{"label":"es","prob":0.94385827},{"label":"es","prob":0.9648908},{"label":"es","prob":0.9820557},{"label":"es","prob":0.99471647},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8223743},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9597325},{"label":"es","prob":0.9804316},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{"content":"Esta narración de audio fue creada a partir de una versión específica de este artículo (concretamente del 28 de abril de 2019) y no refleja las posibles ediciones subsiguientes.\nMás artículos grabados\n¿Problemas al reproducir este archivo?\nUTC fecha y hora de solsticios y equinoccios [1]​[2]​\naño\nEquinoccio\nMar\nSolsticio\nJun\nEquinoccio\nSept\nSolsticio\nDic\ndía\nhora\ndía\nhora\ndía\nhora\ndía\nhora\n2004\n20 06:49 21 00:57 22 16:30 21 12:42\n2005\n20 12:33 21 06:46 22 22:23 21 18:35\n2006\n20 18:26 21 12:26 23 04:03 22 00:22\n2007\n21 00:07 21 18:06 23 09:51 22 06:08\n2008\n20 05:48 20 23:59 22 15:44 21 12:04\n2009\n20 11:44 21 05:45 22 21:18 21 17:47\n2010\n20 17:32 21 11:28 23 03:09 21 23:38\n2011\n20 23:21 21 17:16 23 09:04 22 05:30\n2012\n20 05:14 20 23:09 22 14:49 21 11:12\n2013\n20 11:02 21 05:04 22 20:44 21 17:11\n2014\n20 16:57 21 10:51 23 02:29 21 23:03\n2015\n20 22:45 21 16:38 23 08:20 22 04:48\n2016\n20 04:30 20 22:34 22 14:21 21 10:44\n2017\n20 10:28 21 04:24 22 20:02 21 16:28\n2018\n20 16:15 21 10:07 23 01:54 21 22:23\n2019\n20 21:58 21 15:54 23 07:50 22 04:19\n2020\n20 03:50 20 21:43 22 13:31 21 10:03\n2021\n20 09:37 21 03:32 22 19:21 21 15:59\n2022\n20 15:33 21 09:14 23 01:04 21 21:48\n2023\n20 21:25 21 14:58 23 06:50 22 03:28\n2024\n20 03:07 20 20:51 22 12:44 21 09:20\n2025\n20 09:02 21 02:42 22 18:20 21 15:03\n2026\n20 14:46 21 08:25 23 00:06 21 20:50\n2027\n20 20:25 21 14:11 23 06:02 22 02:43\n2028\n20 02:17 20 20:02 22 11:45 21 08:20\n2029\n20 08:01 21 01:48 22 17:37 21 14:14\n2030\n20 13:51 21 07:31 22 23:27 21 20:09\n2031\n20 19:41 21 13:17 23 05:15 22 01:56\n2032\n20 01:23 20 19:09 22 11:11 21 07:57\n2033\n20 07:23 21 01:01 22 16:52 21 13:45\n2034\n20 13:18 21 06:45 22 22:41 21 19:35\n2035\n20 19:03 21 12:33 23 04:39 22 01:31\n2036\n20 01:02 20 18:31 22 10:23 21 07:12\n2037\n20 06:50 21 00:22 22 16:13 21 13:08\n2038\n20 12:40 21 06:09 22 22:02 21 19:01\n2039\n20 18:32 21 11:58 23 03:50 22 00:41\n2040\n20 00:11 20 17:46 22 09:44 21 06:33\n2041\n20 06:07 20 23:37 22 15:27 21 12:19\n2042\n20 11:53 21 05:16 22 21:11 21 18:04\n2043\n20 17:29 21 10:59 23 03:07 22 00:02\n2044\n19 23:20 20 16:50 22 08:47 21 05:43\n2045\n20 05:08 20 22:34 22 14:33 21 11:36\n2046\n20 10:58 21 04:15 22 20:22 21 17:28\n2047\n20 16:52 21 10:02 23 02:07 21 23:07\n2048\n19 22:34 20 15:54 22 08:01 21 05:02\n2049\n20 04:28 20 21:47 22 13:42 21 10:51\n2050\n20 10:20 21 03:33 22 19:29 21 16:39\nLos solsticios son los momentos del año en los que el Sol alcanza su mayor excursión (declinación astronómica) hacia el norte o el sur relativa al ecuador celestial en la esfera celeste, y la duración del día o de la noche son las máximas del año. Geográficamente, los solsticios son los momentos en los que el Sol alcanza la máxima latitud norte (+23º 26’) o sur (−23º 26’) con respecto al ecuador terrestre.\nOcurre dos veces por año: en junio y en diciembre. En el solsticio de junio el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales alcanza el cenit al mediodía sobre el trópico de Cáncer y marca el inicio del verano en el hemisferio norte, por lo que, en este hemisferio el solsticio de junio, se llama solsticio de verano. En el hemisferio sur, marca el inicio del invierno. En el solsticio de diciembre el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales alcanza el cenit al mediodía sobre el trópico de Capricornio y marca el inicio del verano en este hemisferio y del invierno en el norte.\nEn zonas templadas, los solsticios se pueden determinar por la duración del día y la noche y la posición el sol al alba y al ocaso. En la mayoría de las culturas antiguas se celebraban festivales conmemorativos de los solsticios, especialmente en el solsticio de invierno. En los lugares de la Tierra que se ubican fuera de la zona intertropical, el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales parece alcanzar su punto más alto en el cielo durante los solsticios, sin llegar nunca al cenit, como sí sucede en los países tropicales, donde el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales cruza el cenit dos veces por año y no durante los solsticios.\nÍndice\n1 Etimología\n2 Movimiento diurno del Sol\n2.1 Solsticio de junio\n2.2 Solsticio de diciembre\n3 Tradiciones\n4 Véase también\n5 Referencias\n6 Enlaces externos\nEtimología[editar]\nLa palabra solsticio proviene del latín solstitium[3]​ que, a su vez, se forma de dos palabras: Sol y statum (estático)[4]​, stare (detenerse)[5]​ o sistere (quieto) y se refiere al hecho de que el Sol parece no cambiar de trayectoria durante varios días alrededor de la fechas correspondientes a los solsticios.[6]​\nMovimiento diurno del Sol[editar]\nPosición del Sol al amanecer, a mediodía y al atardecer, en los solsticios y equinoccios, para una latitud de 49 grados (la de París, aproximadamente)\nSolsticio de junio[editar]\nVisión con respecto al plano ecuatorial\nIluminación de la Tierra por el Sol en el solsticio de junio. En seis meses más el otro polo será el expuesto al sol\nOcurre regularmente el 20 o 21 de junio. Es denominado de verano y la Estación lluviosa en el hemisferio norte o de invierno y la Estación seca en el hemisferio sur.[7]​\nLa fecha del solsticio de junio constituye el día más largo del año en el hemisferio septentrional, y el más corto en el hemisferio meridional.\nEn el polo Norte el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales circula por el cielo a una altitud constante de 23°.\nEn el círculo polar ártico el centro del Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales solamente toca el horizonte del norte, sin ponerse. El Sol culmina al sur, donde alcanza su altitud máxima: 47°. Es el único día que el Sol se mantiene sobre el horizonte durante 24 horas.\nEn el trópico de Cáncer el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 27° norte, del Este. Culmina al cenit, y se pone a los 27° norte, por el Oeste. El Sol está sobre el horizonte durante 13,4 horas: 13 horas 24 minutos.\nEn el ecuador el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 23° norte, del este. Culmina al norte, donde alcanza su máxima declinación norte: 23°. Se pone a los 23° norte, al oeste. Permanece 12 horas sobre el horizonte.\nEn el trópico de Capricornio el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 27° norte, del este. Culmina al norte, donde alcanza su altitud máxima: 59.48°. Se pone a los 27° norte, por el oeste. El Sol está sobre el horizonte durante 10,6 horas: 10 horas 36 minutos.\nEn el círculo polar antártico el centro del Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales solamente toca el horizonte del norte, sin salir. Es el único día que el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales se mantiene abajo del horizonte durante 24 horas.\nEn el polo Sur nunca sale el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales. Siempre se mantiene 23° abajo del horizonte.\nEl punto solsticial está situado al inicio de la constelación de Tauro, con lo que el nombre astronómico del trópico es de Tauro.\nSolsticio de diciembre[editar]\nOcurre el 21 o 22 de diciembre. Se le denomina «de invierno» y Estación seca en el hemisferio norte, o «de verano» y Estación lluviosa en el hemisferio sur.[7]​\nEl día del solsticio de diciembre es la noche más larga del año en el hemisferio norte y la más corta en el hemisferio sur.\nEn el polo Norte nunca sale el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales. Siempre se mantiene 23° abajo del horizonte.\nEn el círculo polar ártico el centro del Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales solamente toca el horizonte del sur, sin salir. Es el único día que el Sol se mantiene por debajo del horizonte durante 24 horas.\nEn el trópico de Cáncer el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 27° sur, del Este. Culmina al sur, donde alcanza su altitud máxima: 43,12°. Se pone a los 27° sur, por el Oeste. Está sobre el horizonte durante 10,6 horas: 10 horas 36 minutos.\nEn el ecuador el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 23° sur, por el Este. Culmina al sur, donde alcanza su máxima declinación sur: 23°. Se pone a los 23° sur, en el Oeste. Permanece sobre el horizonte durante 12 horas.\nEn el trópico de Capricornio el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales sale a los 27° sur, del Este. Culmina al cenit y se pone a los 27° sur, por el Oeste. Está sobre el horizonte durante 13,4 horas: 13 horas 24 minutos.\nEn el círculo polar antártico el centro del Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales solamente toca el horizonte del sur, sin ponerse. El Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales culmina al norte, donde alcanza su altitud máxima: 47°. Es el único día que el Sol permanece sobre el horizonte durante 24 horas.\nEn el polo Sur el Sol y el cinturón de lluvias tropicales circula por el cielo a una altitud constante de 24°.\nTradiciones[editar]\nArtículo principal: Solsticio de invierno\nEn México el solsticio de Invierno, se relaciona directamente con el nacimiento del nuevo sol y el nacimiento del niño Mexi Huitzilopochtli, deidad mexicana que es perteneciente al \"rumbo del sur\" y representa la esperanza del nacimiento de un nuevo sol, sol del despertar colectivo de la conciencia.\nEn Europa, ante la llegada de los solsticios, desde tiempos prerromanos, se han realizado diversas celebraciones y rituales, con hogueras.\nDel solsticio de junio se pueden citar las famosas hogueras de la Festividad de San Juan, que tienen lugar en España y en otros países del hemisferio norte, para celebrar el solsticio de verano. Estas provienen de fiestas paganas anteriores al cristianismo, que posteriormente fueron asimiladas por la Iglesia.\nEn Sudamérica los pueblos originarios celebran el comienzo de su nuevo año en junio, en el solsticio de invierno. Por ejemplo, los pueblos andinos celebran el Inti Raymi.\nEn el solsticio de diciembre, en especial en las culturas romana y celta, se festejaba el regreso del Sol. A partir de esta fecha los días empezaban a alargarse. Esto se atribuía a un triunfo del Sol sobre las tinieblas, que se celebraba con fogatas. Posteriormente la Iglesia católica decidió situar en esa misma fecha, el 25 de diciembre, la Natividad de Jesucristo [cita requerida], otorgándole el mismo carácter simbólico de renacer de la esperanza y de la luz en el mundo y corrigiendo así al mismo tiempo el significado de la festividad pagana previa, denominada Sol Invictus. Actualmente no coincide la fecha de la celebración religiosa con el solsticio de invierno debido a los diversos ajustes de calendario realizados.[8]​\nEn la zona andina durante el solsticio de diciembre los pueblos celebran el Cápac Raymi, que es el inicio del año incaico.\nVéase también[editar]\nEquinoccio\nInti Raymi\nFiesta de San Juan\nLitha\nNavidad\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ United States Naval Observatory. «Earth's Seasons: Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000-2020» (en inglés). Consultado el 20 de marzo de 2012.\n↑ Solstice and Equinox Table Courtesy of Fred Espenak, www.Astropixels.com. «Solstices and Equinoxes: 2001 to 2100».\n↑ Real Academia Española (2014). «solsticio». Diccionario de la lengua española (23 edición).\n↑ Nuria Sanz, ed. (2016). El papel de la arqueoastronomía en el mundo maya: el caso de la Isla de Cozumel. México: UNESCO. p. 86 nota 3. ISBN 978-92-3-300039-1.\n↑ Kunth, Daniel (2017). Las palabras del cielo. GEDISA. Abecedario. ISBN 978-84-16919-30-7.\n↑ Galindo, Salvador; Klapp, Jaime (julio - octubre 2009). «Arqueoastronomía y la traza urbana en Teotihuacan». Ciencia, ergo sum (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México). Vol. 16: Pág. 203.\n↑ a b Real Observatorio de la Armada. «Principio de las estaciones». Consultado el 17 de mayo de 2010. «Se muestra los años 2002 a 2010, donde ha ocurrido el día 21, excepto en 2008, que fue el 20.»\n↑ Calendario Gregoriano\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nWikcionario tiene definiciones y otra información sobre solsticio.\n«Solsticios de invierno y verano», numerosos gráficos sobre la geometría de los solsticios.\n«Solsticio de verano», recopilación de culturas que celebran el solsticio de verano.\nEfemérides en la web del Real Observatorio de la Armada española (consultado el 17 de mayo de 2010).\nTabla de equinoccios, solsticios, perihelio y afelio 1992-2020 en español.\nSolsticios en Penas de Rodas en español.\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q123524\nMultimedia: Solstices\nIdentificadores\nGND: 4369408-1\nMicrosoft Academic: 108320909\nDiccionarios y enciclopedias\nBritannica: url\nDatos: Q123524\nMultimedia: Solstices\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solsticio&oldid=137232733»\nCategorías:\nAstrometría\nFenómenos astronómicos\nFactores técnicos de la astrología\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos grabados\nWikipedia:Artículos con pasajes que requieren referencias\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Microsoft Academic\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nAfrikaans\nÆnglisc\nالعربية\nAsturianu\nAzərbaycanca\nBoarisch\nŽemaitėška\nБеларуская\nБългарски\nবাংলা\nCatalà\nکوردی\nČeština\nCymraeg\nDansk\nDeutsch\nZazaki\nΕλληνικά\nEmiliàn e rumagnòl\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nFurlan\nFrysk\nGaeilge\nGalego\nעברית\nहिन्दी\nHrvatski\nKreyòl ayisyen\nMagyar\nInterlingua\nBahasa Indonesia\nIdo\nÍslenska\nItaliano\n日本語\nTaqbaylit\n한국어\nKurdî\nLatina\nLëtzebuergesch\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nМакедонски\nമലയാളം\nBahasa Melayu\nNedersaksies\nNederlands\nNorsk nynorsk\nNorsk bokmål\nOccitan\nଓଡ଼ିଆ\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nPolski\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nРусиньскый\nСаха тыла\nSardu\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nSimple English\nSlovenčina\nSlovenščina\nChiShona\nShqip\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nKiswahili\nதமிழ்\nไทย\nTagalog\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\nاردو\nTiếng Việt\nWinaray\n吴语\n中文\n粵語\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 25 jul 2021 a las 07:53.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solsticio","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:371a5d2f-13a5-4fed-bda6-159ce38cc662>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-block-digest":"sha1:MPIJDYCS5EFBF4IMZRLX2II7JIBGC7MT","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:27:43Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:8bd00635-a022-4021-abb9-7dba275505cf>","warc-type":"conversion","content-length":"14906","warc-identified-content-language":"spa,eng"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.69779104},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.99684906},{"label":"es","prob":0.9963963},{"label":"es","prob":0.9998602},{"label":"es","prob":0.90525484},{"label":"es","prob":1.00005},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.93254244},{"label":"es","prob":0.80760217},{"label":"en","prob":0.9610039},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.980075},{"label":"es","prob":0.80760217},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.82475346},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9847818},{"label":"es","prob":0.9913082},{"label":"es","prob":0.98938185},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},{"label":"es","prob":0.9785499},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9766711},{"label":"es","prob":0.99724144},{"label":"es","prob":0.9136068},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000495},{"label":"es","prob":0.89484394},{"label":"es","prob":0.9331539},{"label":"es","prob":0.8367034},{"label":"es","prob":0.84305173},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97483486},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95927745},{"label":"es","prob":0.9980724},{"label":"es","prob":0.9670628},{"label":"es","prob":0.99573374},{"label":"es","prob":0.960639},{"label":"es","prob":0.95012254},{"label":"es","prob":0.95066977},{"label":"es","prob":0.96000266},{"label":"es","prob":0.94894385},{"label":"es","prob":0.95253485},{"label":"es","prob":0.96872824},{"label":"es","prob":0.9886989},{"label":"es","prob":0.98048735},{"label":"es","prob":0.9666942},{"label":"es","prob":0.99749416},{"label":"es","prob":0.9643111},{"label":"es","prob":0.9583688},{"label":"es","prob":0.9635436},{"label":"es","prob":0.9767778},{"label":"es","prob":0.94829386},{"label":"es","prob":0.95323044},{"label":"es","prob":0.9656835},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97169363},{"label":"es","prob":0.9659014},{"label":"es","prob":0.96031135},{"label":"es","prob":0.9765055},{"label":"es","prob":0.9842982},{"label":"es","prob":0.9757388},{"label":"es","prob":0.9949739},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.82444763},{"label":"es","prob":0.99053496},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9102062},{"label":"es","prob":0.80553174},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8842843},{"label":"es","prob":0.9945259},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99499285},{"label":"es","prob":0.9759323},{"label":"es","prob":0.90845364},{"label":"es","prob":0.9642145},{"label":"es","prob":0.8806231},{"label":"es","prob":0.9554415},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},{"label":"es","prob":0.95017886},{"label":"es","prob":0.8359903},{"label":"es","prob":0.94541776},{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},{"label":"es","prob":0.9370689},{"label":"es","prob":0.9802104},{"label":"es","prob":0.91860306},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},{"label":"nl","prob":0.8275079},{"label":"de","prob":0.9812887},null,null,{"label":"az","prob":0.9951163},null,null,null,{"label":"bg","prob":0.9979911},null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},null,null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"el","prob":0.98782945},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,{"label":"et","prob":1.000088},null,null,{"label":"fi","prob":0.9453278},null,null,{"label":"fy","pr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{"content":"Cromosomas X (rojo) y cromosomas Y (verde) en células madre embrionarias de ratones machos (X / Y) y hembras (X / X).\nLa gametogénesis es la formación de los llamados gametos por medio de la meiosis[1]​ a partir de células germinales. Mediante este proceso, el contenido genético en las células germinales se reduce de diploide (2n, doble) a haploide (n, único), es decir, a la mitad del número de cromosomas que contiene una célula normal de la especie de que se trate.[1]​ En el caso de los hombres; el proceso que tiene como fin producir son los espermatozoides y se le denomina espermatogénesis, realizándose en los testículos y en el caso de las mujeres, el resultado son los ovocitos, denominado ovogénesis y se lleva a cabo en los ovarios.[2]​\nEste proceso se realiza en dos divisiones cromosómicas y citoplasmáticas, llamadas primera y segunda división meiótica o simplemente meiosis I y meiosis II. Ambas comprenden profase, metafase, anafase y telofase.[3]​\nDurante la meiosis I los miembros de cada par homólogo de cromosomas se unen primero y luego se separan con el huso mitótico y se distribuyen en diferentes polos de la célula. En la meiosis II, las cromátidas hermanas que forman cada cromosoma se separan y se distribuyen en los núcleos de las nuevas células.[3]​ Entre estas dos fases sucesivas no existe la fase S (duplicación del ADN).[4]​\nLa meiosis no es un proceso perfecto, a veces los errores en la mitosis son responsables de las principales anomalías cromosómicas.[5]​ La meiosis consigue mantener constante el número de cromosomas de las células de la especie para mantener la información genética.\nEn general, los miembros de un par de cromosomas no se encuentran en estrecha cercanía ya sea en la célula en reposo o durante la división mitótica. El único momento en que entran en íntimo contacto es durante las divisiones meióticas o de maduración de las células germinativas.\nÍndice\n1 Ovogénesis\n2 Espermatogénesis\n3 Gónadas\n4 Función de las hormonas en la espermatogénesis\n5 Diferencias entre espermatogénesis y ovogénesis\n6 Semejanzas entre espermatogénesis y ovogénesis\n7 Comparación entre óvulos y espermatozoides\n8 Gametogénesis in vitro o IVG (por sus siglas en inglés)\n9 Referencias\n10 Véase también\n11 Enlaces externos\nOvogénesis[editar]\nArtículo principal: Ovogénesis\nLa ovogénesis es el proceso de formación de los gametos femeninos.Tiene lugar en los ovarios.[6]​Los ovogonios se ubican en los folículos ováricos, crecen y tienen modificaciones; estos llevan a la primera división meiótica que da como resultado un ovocito primario (que contiene la mayor parte del citoplasma) y un primer corpúsculo polar (su rol es llevarse la mitad de los cromosomas totales de la especie). Las dos células resultantes efectúan la meiosis II,[7]​del ovocito esto tarda entre 1 y 2 semanas, posteriormente se forma una célula grande (que tiene la mayor parte del citoplasma) y un segundo corpúsculo polar, estos se desintegran rápidamente, mientras que la célula grande se desarrolla convirtiéndose en los gametos femeninos llamados óvulos. El gameto femenino queda estancado en meiosis II, específicamente en Metafase II.[8]​\nLa ovogénesis cuenta con diversas fases, las cuales son:[9]​\nProliferación: durante el desarrollo embrionario, las células germinales de los ovarios sufren mitosis para originar a los ovogonios.\nCrecimiento: en la pubertad crecen para originar los ovocitos de primer orden.\nMaduración: el ovocito del primer orden sufre meiosis.\nLa ovogénesis comienza antes del nacimiento y se completa durante la vida reproductiva de la mujer, al ocurrir la fecundación.\nEspermatogénesis[editar]\nArtículo principal: Espermatogénesis\nLa espermatogénesis es el proceso de producción de los gametos masculinos (espermatozoides) que tienen su producción en los testículos,[9]​específicamente en los tubulos seminíferos. Dentro de este, destacan los siguientes procesos:\nProliferación: las células germinales de los testículos sufren mitosis para que la cantidad de espermatogonios sea amplia.\nCrecimiento: En esta etapa la célula sufre una interfase, creciendo y duplicando la cantidad de ADN, transformándose en espermatocitos1.\nMaduración: Aquí los espermatocitos 1 sufren dos divisiones celulares consecutivas. De la primera meiosis resultan los espermatocitos 2, de condición celular haploide, y de la segunda, las espermátidas.\nDiferenciación: Las espermátidas, que ya son haploides y de cromosomas simples, se les genera el flagelo y el acrosoma. A estas espermátidas , luego de su transformación se les llama espermio.\nEn la espermatogénesis, por cada célula germinal se producen cuatro espermios.[9]​\nGónadas[editar]\nArtículo principal: Gónada\nTambién llamadas órganos sexuales sexuales primarios funcionan como glándulas mixtas en la medida que se producen hormonas y gametos. Los órganos sexuales secundarios son aquellas estructuras que maduran en la pubertad y que son esenciales en el cuidado y transporte de gametos, son rasgos que se consideran de atracción sexual.\nLos testículos son dos estructuras ovaladas que se hallan suspendidas dentro del escroto mediante cordones espermáticos, son las que producen semen y líquido testicular; su función endocrina es liberar hormonas masculinas como la testosterona,[10]​ quienes participaran en mantener los caracteres sexuales masculinos.\nLos ovarios son dos órganos con forma de almendra, situados en los extremos de las trompas de Falopio,[11]​ los ovarios son formados aproximadamente cuando el feto hembra tiene 3 meses y cuando la mujer entra a la pubertad los óvulos se van desarrollando. Su función endocrina es liberar hormonas como la progesterona y estrógeno, las cuales intervendrán en el ciclo ovárico.\nFunción de las hormonas en la espermatogénesis[editar]\nLa testosterona es la principal hormona masculina, la sintetizan un grupo de células llamadas células de Leydig. Esta hormona promueve la espermatogénesis o en casos de abundancia la inhibe.[12]​ El hipotálamo segrega el factor de liberación de gonadotropina (GnRH), el cual estimula la adenohipófisis para que libere la hormona luteinizante en los ovarios que estimula le formación del cuerpo lúteo, la ovulación y la síntesis del estradiol y la progesterona . La hormona foliculoestimulante (FSH) en los ovarios estimula el crecimiento folicular y en los testículos la espermatogénesis.[13]​\nDiferencias entre espermatogénesis y ovogénesis[editar]\nEspermatogénesis\nSe realiza en los testículos.\nOcurre a partir de la espermatogonia.\nCada espermatogonia da origen a cuatro espermatozoides.\nEn la meiosis el material se divide equitativamente.\nLos espermatozoides se producen durante toda su vida.\nSe produce en el hombre.\nDe un espermatocito I, se forman 4 espermios funcionales.\nOvogénesis\nSe realiza en los ovarios.\nOcurre a partir de la ovogonia.\nCada ovogonia da origen a un ovocito II el cual solo en el caso de ser fecundado pasará a llamarse óvulo y a 2 cuerpos polares I y a un cuerpo polar II (solo en caso de fecundación).\nEn meiosis I no se divide el citoplasma por igual, quedando una célula hija (ovocito II) con casi todo el citoplasma.\nLa mujer nace con un número determinado de folículos, aproximadamente 400.000.\nSe produce en la mujer.\nDe un ovocito I, se forma un óvulo funcional.\nSemejanzas entre espermatogénesis y ovogénesis[editar]\nAmbos son subprocesos de la gametogénesis.\nLos dos producen gametos.\nEn ambos se produce la meiosis.\nLos dos son procesos de la reproducción sexual en mamíferos.\nAmbos procesos se producen dentro de las gónadas.\nLos dos inician sus fases a partir de la meiosis.\nComparación entre óvulos y espermatozoides[editar]\nÓvulos\nMás grande que el espermatozoide.\nTiene vitelo (reserva nutritiva).\nNo tiene movimiento.\nSirve solo uno de cada célula germinal.\nSe produce en el ovario.\nEspermatozoide\nPequeño en comparación al ovocito II.\nNo tiene reservas nutritivas.\nSe mueve por medio de su flagelo.\nSirven cuatro de cada célula germinal.\nSe produce en el testículo.\nGametogénesis in vitro o IVG (por sus siglas en inglés)[editar]\nLa gametogénesis in vitro (IVG, por sus siglas en inglés) es un procedimiento que permite obtener gametos funcionales (espermatozoides y óvulos) de forma artificial a partir de células diferenciadas del individuo adulto, como las células de la piel.[14]​\nDicha técnica consiste en tomar células diferenciadas de la piel de una persona adulta y reprogramarlas para que se comporten como células madre embrionarias pluripotentes o iPSC (Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell). Posteriormente son estimuladas para diferenciarse en óvulos y espermatozoides que, a su vez, son empleados en la generación in vitro de un embrión que será implantado en un útero adulto sano.[14]​\nYa en 1962 John Bertrand Gurdon demostró que las células diferenciadas mantenían la pluripotencia y, en 2006, Shinya Yamanaka descubrió la existencia de cuatro genes implicados en la capacidad de diferenciación: Oct3/4, Sox2, Kfl4 y C-Myc. Una vez que la célula se ha diferenciado, la expresión de estos genes se inhibe (pierde la capacidad de volver a diferenciarse). No obstante, la reactivación de dichos genes puede hacer que células somáticas adultas diferenciadas se desdiferencien a células madre pluripotentes inducidas o iPSC.[15]​\nEn reconocimiento a su aportación a la ciencia, ambos científicos recibieron el premio Nobel en 2012 y, aunque hasta la fecha solo se ha conseguido llevar a cabo en ratones, se prevé que en un futuro la técnica se podrá realizar en humanos, con todas las implicaciones ético-legales que ello conlleva.\nLos expertos califican esta tecnología de prometedora y aseguran que tiene potencial para mejorar las técnicas de fecundación in vitro actuales. Además, de poder llevarse a cabo en humanos, las aplicaciones serían muy numerosas. Por una parte, facilitaría el proceso de obtención de muestras y permitiría prescindir de las intervenciones quirúrgicas en aquellos casos donde la extracción de gametos es complicada. Por otra parte, es una buena alternativa para parejas incapaces de fabricar gametos pero que desean tener hijos propios. Asimismo, evitaría que las mujeres tuvieran que exponerse a altas dosis de fármacos a la hora de recuperar los óvulos necesarios para la fecundación in vitro, cosa que ocurre frecuentemente en la actualidad.[16]​\nAunque los potenciales beneficios de esta técnica son muchos, el mayor obstáculo al que se enfrenta actualmente son los comités éticos, pues también permitiría que parejas del mismo sexo tuviesen hijos biológicos y que las mujeres solteras pudieran concebir sin necesidad de un donante varón.[16]​\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ a b Conde, Rosalino Vázquez (2016). Biología 2. Grupo Editorial Patria. ISBN 9786077444763. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Cárdenas, Ojea (2013). Biología celular y humana. Ecoe Ediciones. ISBN 9789587712094. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ a b Vila, María Amparo Badía (2013-03). Imagen corporal y hábitos saludables. Editorial Paraninfo. ISBN 9788497328999. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina, Wojciech (2007). Histología. Texto y Atlas Color con Biología Celular y Molecular. (Incluye Cd-Rom)5aed. Ed. Médica Panamericana. ISBN 9789500604352. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ C, Marta Colombo (2003). Errores Innatos en El Metabolismo Del Niño. Editorial Universitaria. ISBN 9789561116634. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Moratalla, Natalia López (2008). Biología y Geología 1º Bachillerato. Editex. ISBN 9788497714099. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Nussbaum, Robert L. (2008-05). Thompson & Thompson, 7a ed. : genética en medicina. Elsevier España. ISBN 9788445818701. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Velasco, Juan Manuel; Romero, Tomás; Salamanca, Carlos; López, Rafaela (2009-05). Biología 2º Bachillerato. Editex. ISBN 9788497715911. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ a b c Moratalla, Natalia López (2008). Biología y Geología 1º Bachillerato. Editex. ISBN 9788497714099. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Vargas, José Ruiz (2002). Anatomía topográfica. UACJ. ISBN 9789687845371. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Boluda, Rosa María Zapata; Izquierdo, María Isabel Gutiérrez (15 de febrero de 2016). Salud sexual y reproductiva. Universidad Almería. ISBN 9788416642113. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Fanjul, María Luisa; Hiriart, Marcia (1 de enero de 1998). Biología funcional de los animales. Siglo XXI. ISBN 9682321360. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ Hormonas, estado de ánimo y función cognitiva. Delta Publicaciones. 2006-09. ISBN 9788496477469. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2018.\n↑ a b Nagamatsu, Go (13 de noviembre de 2017). «Stem cells, in vitro gametogenesis and male fertility.». Reproduction. PMID 29133304. doi:10.1530/REP-17-0510. Consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2018.\n↑ Yamanaka, Shinya (10 de agosto de 2006). «Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors.». Cell. PMID 16904174. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.07.024. Consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2018.\n↑ a b Palacios-González, César (7 de marzo de 2014). «Multiplex parenting: IVG and the generations to come.». Journal of Medical Ethics. PMID 24608087. doi:10.1136/medethics-2013-101810. Consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2018.\nVéase también[editar]\nEspermatogénesis\nGenoma\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nGlosario de la Universidad Concepción. 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Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de 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{"content":"La radiocomunicación por microondas se refiere a la transmisión de datos o voz a través de radiofrecuencias con longitudes de onda en la región de frecuencias de microondas[1]​.\nÍndice\n1 Definición\n2 Microondas analógicas y digitales\n3 Modulación de frecuencia y amplitud\n4 Sistemas de radio por microondas con frecuencia modulada\n5 Radiotransmisor de microondas de FM\n6 Radioreceptor de microondas de FM\n7 Ventajas de las radiocomunicaciones por microondas\n8 Radioenlace\n9 Modulación en microondas\n10 Rango de frecuencias\n11 Estructura general de un radioenlace por microondas\n12 Antenas para enlaces de radio por microondas\n13 Consideraciones en un radioenlace\n14 Aplicaciones\n15 Enlace microondas y sistemas de línea metálica\n15.1 Ventajas de los enlaces microondas\n15.2 Desventajas de los enlaces microondas\n16 Enlace microondas y fibra óptica\n17 Capacidad\n18 Fabricantes\n19 Costo\n20 Licencias\n21 Enlaces externos\n22 Véase también\n23 Referencias\nDefinición[editar]\nSe denominan como microondas a las ondas electromagnéticas con frecuencias (f) comprendidas entre f=300 MHz, y f=300 GHz, cuyos períodos de oscilación (T=1/f) están entre 3,3 x10e-9 y 3,3 x10e-12 segundos, con longitudes de onda en el rango de 1 metro en 300 MHz a 1 milímetro en 300 GHz. Otras definiciones, por ejemplo las de los estándares IEC 60050 y IEEE 100 sitúan su rango de frecuencias entre 1 GHz y 30 GHz, es decir, longitudes de onda de entre 30 centímetros a 10 milímetros.\nEl rango de las microondas está incluido en las bandas de radiofrecuencia. De 0.3 a 3 GHz en la UHF (ultra high frequency o frecuencia ultra alta), de 3 a 30 GHz en la SHF (super high frequency o frecuencia súper alta) y de 30 a 300 GHz en la EHF (extremely high frequency o frecuencia extremadamente alta). A las microondas de mayor frecuencia y menor longitud de onda se las denomina ondas milimétricas.\nAntenas de tipo rejilla, pueden ser usadas en frecuencias de microondas bajas, por debajo de 2.5 GHz.\nGran parte de los sistemas de comunicación establecidos desde mediados de las década de 1980 es de naturaleza digital y como es lógico transportan información en forma digital. Sin embargo, los sistemas terrestres de radio repetidoras de microondas que usan frecuencias portadoras moduladas en (FM) o moduladas digitalmente ya sea en QAM o en PSK, siguen constituyendo el 35% del total de los circuitos de transporte de información en los Estados Unidos. Existen una variedad de sistemas de microondas funcionando a distancias que varían de 15 a 4000 millas, los sistemas de microondas de servicio intraestatal o alimentador se consideran en general de corto alcance, porque se usan para llevar información a distancias relativamente cortas, por ejemplo hacer una radiocomunicación entre ciudades que se encuentran en un mismo país. Los sistemas de microondas de largo alcance son los que se usan para llevar información a distancias relativamente mucho más largas, por ejemplo, en aplicaciones de rutas interestatal y de red primaria. Las capacidades de los sistemas de radio de microondas van desde menos de 12 canales de banda de voz hasta más de 22000. Los primeros sistemas tenían circuitos de banda de voz multiplexados por división de frecuencia, y usaban técnicas convencionales, de modulación en frecuencia no coherente, los más modernos tienen circuitos de banda de voz modulados por codificación de pulsos y multiplexados por división de tiempo usan técnicas de modulación digital más modernas, como la modulación de conmutación de fase (PSK) o por amplitud en cuadratura (QAM).\nMicroondas analógicas y digitales[editar]\nEnlace de microondas\nLa gran mayoría de los sistemas actuales de radio de microondas es de modulación de frecuencia, que es de naturaleza analógica. Sin embargo, en fechas recientes se han elaborado nuevos sistemas que usan modulación por conmutación de fase, o por amplitud en cuadratura, que son formas básicamente de modulación digital. También se habla de sistemas satelitales que usan PCM o PSK, estos dos sistemas son similares a los sistemas terrestres de radio de microondas, sin duda los dos sistemas comparten muchas frecuencias. La diferencia principal entre los sistemas satelitales y terrestres de radio, es que los sistemas satelitales propagan señales fuera de la atmósfera terrestre, por lo que son capaces de llevar señales mucho más lejanas, usando menos transmisores y receptores.\nModulación de frecuencia y amplitud[editar]\nEn los sistemas de radio de microondas se usa modulación en frecuencia (FM) más que modulación en amplitud (AM), esto se explica porque las señales de amplitud modulada son más sensibles a no linealidades de amplitud también son inherentes a los amplificadores de microondas de banda ancha. En cambio las señales emitidas en frecuencia modulada son relativamente más robustos a esta clase de distorsión no lineal, y se pueden transmitir por amplificadores que tengan no linealidad de compresión o de amplitud, con relativamente poco demérito. También, las señales emitidas en FM son menos sensibles al ruido aleatorio y se pueden propagar con menores potencias de transmisión.\nEl ruido de intermodulación es un factor imprescindible en el diseño de sistemas de radio FM. En los sistemas de AM, este ruido es provocado a la no linealidad de amplitud en la repetidora. En los sistemas de FM, el ruido de intermodulación es provocado principalmente por la distorsión de la ganancia de transmisión y del retardo. En consecuencia, en los sistemas FM es una función de la amplitud de la señal y de la magnitud de la desviación en frecuencia. Así las características de las señales de frecuencia modulada son más adecuadas para la transmisión por microondas que las de amplitud modulada.\nSistemas de radio por microondas con frecuencia modulada[editar]\nLos sistemas de radio por microondas que usan modulación de frecuencia se conocen ampliamente por proporcionar comunicaciones flexibles, confiables y económicas, de punto a punto, cuando usan la atmósfera terrestre como medio de transmisión. Los sistemas de microondas FM que se usan con el equipo multiplexor adecuado son capaces de conducir en forma simultánea desde unos pocos circuitos de voz de banda angosta, hasta miles de circuitos de voz de alta velocidad, audio de calidad comercial y televisión comercial. Los estudios comparativos de costo han demostrado que los sistemas radio por microondas con modulación por frecuencia (FM) es, casi siempre, el método más económico de proporcionar circuitos de comunicaciones cuando no hay ya cables metálicos ni fibras ópticas, o cuando existen duras condiciones de terreno o de clima. También, los sistemas de microondas FM se pueden ampliar con facilidad.\nEn la figura se ve un diagrama de bloques simplificado de un sistema de microondas de FM. La banda base es la señal compuesta que modula la portadora FM, y que puede abarcar uno o más de los sistemas siguientes.\n1. Canal de banda de voz multiplexado por división de frecuencia. 2. Canales de banda de voz multiplexados por división de tiempo. 3. Vídeo compuesto de calidad comercial o teléfono visual. 4. Datos en banda ancha. 5. Ancho de Banda en Fibra Óptica 4,5 MHz.\nRadiotransmisor de microondas de FM[editar]\nEn la transmisión de microondas FM que se muestra el diagrama de bloques del transmisor, una etapa de pre-amplificación (pre-énfasis) antecede al modulador de frecuencia (desviador de FM). Esta pre-amplificación aumenta la amplitud de las señales de la banda base superior. Permitiendo que las frecuencias de la banda base inferior modulen la frecuencia de la portadora de FI, y que la frecuencia de la banda base superior modulen la fase de esa portadora. Con este diagrama de bloques se asegura una relación de señal a ruido más uniforme en todo el espectro de banda base. La etapa del desviador de FM entrega la modulación de la portadora de FI que al finalizar se convierte en la principal portadora de microondas, normalmente las frecuencias típicas intermedias están entre 60 y 80 MHz, donde lo más adecuado es 70MHz. En el desviador FM se usa modulación en frecuencia de bajo índice. Donde los índices de modulación se mantienen entre 0.5 y 1, de esta manera se realiza una señal FM de banda angosta en la salida del desviador, en consecuencia el ancho de banda de la F1 se asemeja a la de AM común y se aproxima al doble de la frecuencia máxima de la banda base.\nDiagrama de bloques del radiotransmisor\nLa F1 y sus bandas laterales asociadas se convierten a las mayores frecuencias de la región de microondas, mediante el mezclador, el oscilador de microondas y filtro pasa banda. Para trasladar las F1 a la etapa de RF se usa mezclado y no multiplicación porque el índice de modulación no cambia por el proceso de heterodinado. También al multiplicar la portadora de F1 se multiplicarían la desviación de frecuencia y el índice de modulación aumentando así el ancho de banda.\nLos generadores de microondas está constituido por un oscilador de cristal seguido por una serie de multiplicadores de frecuencia. Por ejemplo un oscilador de cristal de 125 MHz seguido por una serie de multiplicadores, con factor combinado de multiplicación igual a 48, se podría usar para una frecuencia de portadora de microondas de 6 GHz. La red combinadora de canales proporciona un medio de conectar más de un transmisor de microondas de una sola línea de transmisión que alimente a la antena.\nRadioreceptor de microondas de FM[editar]\ndiagrama de bloques del radioreceptor\nDiagrama de bloques del receptor: Se muestra el radiorreceptor de microondas de FM, donde el bloque de la red separadora de canales proporciona el aislamiento y el filtrado necesario para separar canales de microondas individuales, y dirigidos hacia sus respectivos receptores. El filtro pasa banda, el mezclador AM y el oscilador de microondas bajan las frecuencias desde RF de microondas hasta las F1, y las pasan al demodulador FM. Donde este demodulador es un detector convencional, no coherente de FM. A la salida del detector de FM, una red de-énfasis restaura la señal de banda base a sus características originales de amplitud en función de la frecuencia.\nVentajas de las radiocomunicaciones por microondas[editar]\nLos radios de microondas emiten señales usando como medio la atmósfera terrestre, entre transmisores y receptores, para una mejor emisión y recepción, estos se encuentran en la cima de torres a distancias de 15 a 30 millas. Así los sistemas de radio de microondas tienen la ventaja obvia de contar con capacidad de llevar miles de canales individuales de información entre dos puntos, dejando a un lado la necesidad de instalaciones físicas, tales como los cables coaxiales o fibras ópticas. Así claro esta, se evita la necesidad de adquirir derechos de vías a través de propiedades privadas, además las ondas de radio se adaptan mejor para salvar grandes extensiones de agua, montañas altas o terrenos muy boscosos que constituyes formidables obstáculos para los sistemas de cable.\nEntre las ventajas de radio de microondas están las siguientes:\nLos sistemas de radio no necesitan adquisiciones de derecho de vía entre estaciones.\nCada estación requiere la compra o alquiler de solo una pequeña extensión de terreno.\nPor sus grandes frecuencias de operación, los sistemas de radio de microondas pueden llevar grandes cantidades de información.\nLas frecuencias altas equivalen longitudes cortas de onda, que requieren antenas relativamente pequeñas.\nLas señales de radio se propagan con más facilidad en torno a obstáculos físicos, como por ejemplo, a través del agua o las montañas altas.\nPara la amplificación se requieren menos repetidores.\nLas distancias entre los centros de conmutación son menores.\nSe reducen al mínimo las instalaciones subterráneas.\nSe introducen tiempos mínimos de retardos.\nEntre los canales de voz existe un mínimo de diafonía.\nSon factores importantes la mayor confiabilidad y menores tiempos de mantenimiento.\nRadioenlace[editar]\nUn radioenlace terrestre o microondas terrestre provee conectividad entre dos sitios (estaciones terrenas) en línea de mira (Line-of-Sight, LOS) usando equipo de radio con frecuencias de portadora por encima de 1 GHz. La forma de onda emitida puede ser analógica (convencionalmente en frecuencia modulada) o digital.\nLas microondas son ondas electromagnéticas cuyas frecuencias se encuentran dentro del espectro de las super altas frecuencias, SHF.\nTambién se suele ofrecer por los instaladores de WiMAX para ofrecer servicio desde los lugares donde hay cobertura a aquellos cercanos en los que no la hay.\nModulación en microondas[editar]\nLos generadores de microondas son generadores críticos en cuanto a la tensión y la corriente de funcionamiento.\nUno de los medios es no actuar sobre el generador o amplificador pero si utilizar un dispositivo diodo pin en la guía de salida, modulada directamente la amplitud de la onda. Otro medio es utilizar un desfasador de ferrita y modular la onda en fase. En este caso es fácil obtener modulación en frecuencia a través del siguiente proceso:\nEn una primera etapa, se modula en FM una portadora de baja frecuencia, por ejemplo 70 MHz. En una segunda etapa, esta portadora modulada es mezclada con la portadora principal en frecuencia de GHz, por ejemplo 10 GHz.\nUn filtro de frecuencias deja pasar la frecuencia suma, 10070 MHz con sus bandas laterales de 3 MHz y por lo tanto la banda pasante será de 10067 a 10073 MHz que es la señal final de microondas.\nEn el receptor se hace la mezcla de esta señal con el oscilador local de 10 GHz seguido de un filtro que aprovecha la frecuencia de diferencia 70 MHz la cual es amplificada y después detectada por las técnicas usuales en FM.\nRango de frecuencias[editar]\nLas principales frecuencias utilizadas en microondas se encuentran alrededor de los 12 GHz, 18 y 23 GHz, las cuales son capaces de conectar dos localidades entre 1 y 25 kilómetros de distancia una de la otra. El equipo de microondas que opera entre 2 y 6 GHz puede transmitir a distancias entre 30 y 50 kilómetros.\nEstructura general de un radioenlace por microondas[editar]\nEquipos Un radioenlace está constituido por equipos terminales y repetidores intermedios. La función de los repetidores es salvar la falta de visibilidad impuesta por la curvatura terrestre y conseguir así enlaces superiores al horizonte óptico. La distancia entre repetidores se llama salto .\nLos repetidores pueden ser:\nActivos\nPasivos\nAntenas para enlaces de radio por microondas[editar]\nLa antena utilizada generalmente en los enlaces de radio por microondas son del tipo parabólico. El tamaño típico es de un diámetro de unos 3 metros. La antena es fijada rígidamente, y transmite un haz estrecho que debe estar perfectamente enfocado hacia la antena receptora.\nEstas antenas de microondas se deben ubicar a una altura considerable sobre el nivel del suelo, con el fin de conseguir mayores separaciones posibles entre ellas y poder superar posibles obstáculos. Sin obstáculos intermedios la distancia máxima entre antenas es de aproximadamente 150 km, con antenas repetidoras, claro está que esta distancia se puede extender, si se aprovecha la característica de curvatura de la tierra, por medio de la cual las microondas se desvían o refractan en la atmósfera terrestre.\nPor ejemplo dos antenas de microondas situadas a una altura de 100 m pueden separarse una distancia total de 82 km, esto se da bajo ciertas condiciones, como terreno y topografía. Es por ello que esta distancia puede variar de acuerdo a las condiciones que se manejen.\nLa distancia cubierta por enlaces microondas puede ser incrementada por el uso de repetidoras, las cuales amplifican y redireccionan la señal, es importante destacar que los obstáculos de la señal pueden ser salvados a través de reflectores pasivos.\nLa señal de microondas transmitidas es distorsionada y atenuada mientras viaja desde el transmisor hasta el receptor, estas atenuaciones y distorsiones son causadas por una pérdida de potencia dependiente a la distancia, reflexión y refracción debido a obstáculos y superficies reflectoras, y a pérdidas atmosféricas.\nReflector parabólico: se construye de fibra de vidrio o aluminio. El caso de fibra de vidrio se construye con un laminado reforzado con resina poliéster; la superficie se metaliza con zinc.\nEficiencia: en una antena se ve reducida la ganancia por las siguientes causas:\nSpill over: la potencia incidente es irradiada en todas las direcciones por el borde de la parábola (rendimiento 90%).\nEl iluminador tiene un diagrama de emisión que abarca más que la superficie de la antena (rendimiento de 70%).\nEl iluminador absorbe parte de la energía reflejada en la parábola porque obstruye el camino (rendimiento de 95%).\nLa rugosidad del reflector produce una diferencia de fase en las ondas reflejadas (rendimiento de 93%).\nSe genera una diferencia de fase cuando el iluminador no está exactamente en el foco de la parábola (rend. 98%).\nComo el reflector no es un conductor ideal parte de la energía penetra en el material y es absorbida (rendimiento 99%).\nConsideraciones en un radioenlace[editar]\nEl clima y el terreno son los mayores factores a considerar antes de instalar un sistema de microondas.\nEn resumen, en un radioenlace se dan pérdidas por:\nEspacio libre\nDifracción\nReflexión\nRefracción\nAbsorción\nDesvanecimientos\nDesajustes de ángulos\nLluvias\nGases y vapores\nDifracción por zonas de Fresnel (atenuación por obstáculo)\nDesvanecimiento por múltiple trayectoria (formación de ductos)\nAplicaciones[editar]\nEl uso principal de este tipo de transmisión se da en las telecomunicaciones de largas distancias, se presenta como alternativa del cable coaxial o la fibra óptica.\nEste sistema necesita menor número de repetidores o amplificadores que el cable coaxial pero necesita que las antenas estén alineadas.\nLos principales usos de las microondas terrestres son para la transmisión de televisión y voz.\nLos enlaces de microondas se suelen utilizar para enlazar edificios diferentes, donde la instalación de cable conllevaría problemas o seria más costosa. Sin embargo, dado que los equipos de microondas terrestres suelen utilizar frecuencias con licencia, las organizaciones o gobiernos que conceden las licencias imponen limitaciones económicas y financieras adicionales.\nLas principales aplicaciones de un sistema de microondas terrestre son las siguientes:\nTelefonía básica (canales telefónicos).\nDatos, incluyendo WiMAX.\nTelégrafo/Télex/Facsímil.\nCanales de Televisión.\nVideo.\nTelefonía celular (entre troncales).\nTransmisión de televisión y voz.\nLas microondas terrestres siguen conformando un medio de comunicación muy efectivo para redes metropolitanas para interconectar bancos, mercados, tiendas departa-mentales y radio bases celulares.\nAsimismo, se pueden utilizar radioenlaces para extender la cobertura de Internet, como sucede lugares donde no llegaba WiMAX.[2]​\nEnlace microondas y sistemas de línea metálica[editar]\nVentajas de los enlaces microondas[editar]\nMás baratos.\nInstalación más rápida y sencilla.\nConservación generalmente más económica y de actuación rápida.\nPuede superarse las irregularidades del terreno.\nLa regulación solo debe aplicarse al equipo, puesto que las características del medio de transmisión son esencialmente constantes en el ancho de banda de trabajo.\nPuede aumentarse la separación entre repetidores, incrementando la altura de las torres.\nDesventajas de los enlaces microondas[editar]\nExplotación restringida a tramos con visibilidad directa para los enlaces( necesita visibilidad directa)\nNecesidad de acceso adecuado a las estaciones repetidoras en las que hay que disponer.\nLas condiciones atmosféricas pueden ocasionar desvanecimientos intensos y desviaciones del haz, lo que implica utilizar sistemas de diversidad y equipo auxiliar requerida, supone un importante problema en diseño.\nEnlace microondas y fibra óptica[editar]\nAntes de la fibra Óptica, Estas Microondas formaron durante décadas el corazón del sistema de transmisión telefónica de larga distancia.\nLas microondas son también relativamente baratas. Elegir dos torres sencillas y poner antenas en cada uno puede costar menos que enterrar 50 km de fibra a través de un área urbana congestionado sobre una montaña, y también pueden ser más económico que rentar la fibra de alguna compañía que ofrezca el servicio telefónico.\nCapacidad[editar]\nAunque la capacidad máxima depende mucho de la frecuencia, las velocidades de datos habituales para un único rango de frecuencia oscilan entren 1 y 10 MBPS en la actualidad se pueden conseguir capacidades más altas hasta de 300 MBPS. Actualmente hay enlaces de microondas que pueden llegar a más 2Gbps.\nFabricantes[editar]\nLos fabricantes de equipamiento de redes de microondas son:[3]​ - Nokia - NEC - Ericsson - Marelli - Marconi - GT&E - GE - Philips - Rohde & Schwartz - Kuhne - Codan - Alcatel - Fujitsu - Siemens - ATI - Hughes - Ceragon - Saf Tehnika - Huawei\nCosto[editar]\nLos costos del equipo dependen más de la potencia y la frecuencia de la señal operativa. Los sistemas para distancias cortas son relativamente económicos. El sistema de microondas terrestre se puedes adquirir en \"leasing\" (arriendo) con los proveedores de servicio.\nLicencias[editar]\nLas licencias o permisos para operar enlaces de microondas pueden ser complejas de tramitar, dado que las autoridades deben de asegurarse que ambos enlaces no causen interferencia a los enlaces ya existentes.\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nRedes de Enlace por Microondas (IEEE)\nCálculo de radioenlaces\nVideo en YouTube.\nRadioenlaces por microondas\nVéase también[editar]\nCronología de las tecnologías de las comunicaciones\nIngeniería de telecomunicación\nIngeniería Informática\nPunto a punto\nRadiomódem\nSatélite artificial\nSistema de transmisión\nTeléfono\nUnión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ «▷ Capítulo II: Fundamentos de Radioenlaces de Microondas». Telectrónika. 17 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 23 de octubre de 2018.\n↑ «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 3 de febrero de 2014. Consultado el 22 de enero de 2014.\n↑ http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Microwave_Link_Networks\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q747066\nMultimedia: Microwave transmission\nIdentificadores\nGND: 4049930-3\nMicrosoft Academic: 1705053\nDatos: Q747066\nMultimedia: Microwave transmission\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiocomunicación_por_microondas&oldid=136707703»\nCategorías:\nMicroondas\nTelecomunicaciones\nRadiodifusión\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Artículos que necesitan referencias\nWikipedia:Referenciar (aún sin clasificar)\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores Microsoft Academic\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nالعربية\nБеларуская\nБългарски\nČeština\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nSuomi\nFrançais\nGaeilge\nעברית\nՀայերեն\nItaliano\n日本語\nქართული\nҚазақша\n한국어\nМакедонски\nမြန်မာဘာသာ\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nPolski\nРусский\nSvenska\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\n中文\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 1 jul 2021 a las 01:06.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:23:58Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:f7ebd4a1-69d5-410c-b2fc-4ee97f112ebe>","content-length":"24490","warc-block-digest":"sha1:D5EL7JEE3CUEPDGZAV4NZAH35BJ3PWIQ","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:9cafc6d5-0b34-4183-b21d-29cf4d2bc2ec>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-identified-content-language":"spa","warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunicaciones_por_radiomicroondas","content-type":"text/plain"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.87417877},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.9719754},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94923687},{"label":"es","prob":0.9135468},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96724284},{"label":"es","prob":0.9314021},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9472839},{"label":"es","prob":0.8852483},{"label":"es","prob":0.9563637},{"label":"es","prob":0.93336993},{"label":"es","prob":0.8319662},{"label":"es","prob":0.9880086},{"label":"es","prob":0.9600935},{"label":"es","prob":0.9730329},{"label":"es","prob":0.9364386},{"label":"es","prob":0.978996},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.91558844},{"label":"es","prob":0.9203676},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000488},{"label":"es","prob":0.879996},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9563306},{"label":"es","prob":0.88283485},{"label":"es","prob":0.9882076},{"label":"es","prob":0.9753292},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94621164},{"label":"es","prob":0.96672577},{"label":"es","prob":0.90395564},{"label":"es","prob":0.9867609},{"label":"es","prob":0.98632},{"label":"es","prob":0.8394947},{"label":"es","prob":0.96874535},{"label":"es","prob":0.97224915},{"label":"es","prob":0.9737019},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97081167},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9881995},{"label":"es","prob":0.9614137},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9594328},{"label":"es","prob":0.9386733},{"label":"es","prob":0.96815974},{"label":"es","prob":0.99027777},{"label":"es","prob":0.9809647},{"label":"es","prob":0.9738011},{"label":"es","prob":0.9821709},{"label":"es","prob":0.87581223},{"label":"es","prob":0.994653},{"label":"es","prob":0.88333255},{"label":"es","prob":0.9754708},{"label":"es","prob":0.954383},{"label":"es","prob":0.91410613},{"label":"es","prob":0.981739},{"label":"es","prob":0.849834},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9481273},{"label":"es","prob":0.9478413},{"label":"es","prob":0.99201125},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97111505},{"label":"es","prob":0.9649142},{"label":"es","prob":0.9908623},{"label":"es","prob":0.96713036},{"label":"es","prob":0.9942158},{"label":"es","prob":0.8765691},{"label":"es","prob":0.97882456},{"label":"es","prob":0.8329315},{"label":"es","prob":0.97638005},{"label":"es","prob":0.9639764},{"label":"es","prob":0.8739557},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.91851395},{"label":"es","prob":0.962152},{"label":"es","prob":0.9531376},{"label":"es","prob":0.9899384},{"label":"es","prob":0.9888702},{"label":"es","prob":0.980279},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98275244},{"label":"es","prob":0.94117665},{"label":"es","prob":0.98064697},{"label":"es","prob":0.9389914},{"label":"es","prob":0.9107358},{"label":"es","prob":0.96845645},{"label":"es","prob":0.8519622},{"label":"es","prob":0.89946073},{"label":"es","prob":0.8498792},{"label":"es","prob":0.8733591},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98927927},{"label":"gl","prob":0.93435323},{"label":"es","prob":0.85269594},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97148377},{"label":"es","prob":0.8360333},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95490867},{"label":"es","prob":0.9909527},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.902518},{"label":"es","prob":0.9469376},{"label":"es","prob":0.9725617},{"label":"es","prob":0.97311956},{"label":"es","prob":0.91813636},{"label":"es","prob":0.9721522},{"label":"es","prob":0.9830201},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9834683},{"label":"la","prob":0.8319704},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9861293},{"label":"es","prob":0.85028297},{"label":"es","prob":0.9560967},{"label":"es","prob":0.97842443},{"label":"es","prob":0.93338233},{"label":"es","prob":0.89525723},{"label":"es","prob":0.9957393},{"label":"es","prob":0.9913172},{"label":"es","prob":0.90008986},{"label":"es","prob":0.9897304},{"label":"es","prob":0.9387423},{"label":"es","prob":0.95007986},{"label":"es","prob":0.96747667},{"label":"es","prob":0.9916398},{"label":"es","prob":0.95801616},{"label":"es","prob":0.8660313},{"label":"es","prob":0.9056373},{"label":"es","prob":0.9929211},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9925979},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97560006},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9784121},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9366662},{"label":"es","prob":0.96703064},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9488059},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},{"label":"es","prob":0.9863713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9825361},{"label":"es","prob":0.9779796},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93975997},{"label":"es","prob":0.99879956},{"label":"es","prob":0.8217944},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9748671},{"label":"es","prob":0.9890123},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":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{"content":"Bashar Háfez al-Ássad (en árabe, بشار حافظ الأسد‎, Baššār Ḥāfiẓ al-ʾAssad, pronunciado /baʃˈʃaːr ˈħaːfezˤ elˈʔasad/ ; Damasco, 11 de septiembre de 1965) es el actual presidente de la República Árabe Siria, gobernando desde el año 2000 tras suceder a su padre, Háfez al-Ásad, quien presidió el país durante 29 años hasta su muerte.\nAl-Ássad se graduó en la Escuela de Medicina de la Universidad de Damasco en 1988, y empezó a trabajar como médico militar en el Ejército Árabe Sirio. Cuatro años más tarde, atendió a estudios de posgrado en Londres, especializándose en Oftalmología. En 1994 su hermano mayor, Basel, murió en un accidente de tráfico. Bashar volvió a Siria para retomar el papel de su hermano como heredero natural. Entró en la academia militar, y se encargó de la ocupación siria del Líbano en 1998. En diciembre del año 2000 Assad se casó con Asma al-Ásad, licenciada en Informática y analista económica del Deutsche Bank y JP Morgan. Al-Ássad fue confirmado por el electorado nacional como presidente en el año 2000, en 2007 y en 2014, tras la votación del Consejo Popular de Siria para proponer al presidente en ambas ocasiones.[2]​[3]​\nVisto inicialmente por la comunidad internacional como un reformista en potencia,[4]​[5]​ esta expectativa cesó cuando comenzaron las manifestaciones y posteriores levantamientos armados, que, junto a la respuesta de su gobierno para derrotarlos, desencadenó la guerra civil siria, descrita por algunos analistas como parte del movimiento de la llamada «Primavera Árabe».[6]​ La oposición dentro del país, los Estados Unidos, Canadá, los países miembros de la Unión Europea y los miembros de la Liga Árabe, han pedido posteriormente la dimisión de al-Ássad como presidente.[7]​[8]​[9]​ Los aliados de Siria, entre los que se encuentra Rusia, han argumentado en cambio, que la guerra civil es el resultado de un apoyo directo de Occidente a mercenarios y grupos yihadistas.[10]​\nEl gobierno de al-Ássad se ha descrito como laico.[11]​ Ha sido acusado por países que apoyan a sus opositores y sus medios de comunicación y organizaciones como un «dictador sectario» pero sin ofrecer pruebas al respecto. [12]​[13]​[14]​[15]​[16]​\nÍndice\n1 Biografía\n1.1 Infancia\n1.2 Carrera\n1.3 Llegada al poder\n2 Presidencia\n3 Vida privada\n4 Véase también\n5 Referencias\n6 Bibliografía\n7 Enlaces externos\nBiografía[editar]\nInfancia[editar]\nLa familia Ásad a principios de la década de 1970. Bashar se encuentra en el extremo izquierdo.\nBashar al-Ássad nació en Damasco el 11 de septiembre de 1965, hijo de Aniseh y Háfez al-Ásad.[17]​ Su padre, nacido en una familia pobre de origen alauita, ascendió en los rangos del Partido Baath para tomar el control de la rama siria en la revolución correctiva siria de 1970, culminando en su presidencia.[18]​ Hafez al-Ássad ascendió a sus partidarios dentro del Partido Baath, muchos de origen alauita también.[17]​[19]​ Su apellido en árabe significa \"el león\".[20]​\nAl contrario que sus hermanos, Basel y Shabbih Maher, y su hermana Bushra, Bashar era callado y reservado y dice que no tenía interés en la política o el Ejército.[21]​ Más tarde dijo que solo llegó a entrar en la oficina de su padre una vez mientras estaba en la presidencia, y nunca hablaba de política con él.[22]​ Tomó su educación primaria y secundaria en la Escuela Franco-Árabe de al-Hurriya, en Damasco.[21]​ En 1982, se graduó del instituto y se fue para estudiar medicina en la Universidad de Damasco.[23]​\nCarrera[editar]\nEn 1988 Bashar el-Ásad se graduó de la escuela médica y empezó a trabajar como doctor en el Ejército en el hospital militar más grande, \"Tishrin\", en las afueras de Damasco.[24]​[25]​ Cuatro años más tarde se fue al Reino unido para empezar sus estudios de posgrado en oftalmología en el Hospital Western Eye, parte del grupo de hospitales de aprendizaje de St. Mary en Londres.[26]​ En esa época Bashar tenía pocas aspiraciones políticas.[27]​ Su padre había estado preparando a su hermano mayor Basel como futuro presidente, aunque él nunca declaró sus intenciones.[28]​ Bashar, sin embargo, fue llamado en 1994 al Ejército Árabe Sirio tras la muerte de Basel en un accidente de tráfico.\nLlegada al poder[editar]\nLa familia Ásad en 1994. En el frente se encuentran Hafez al-Ásad y su esposa, Anisa Makhlouf. Atrás se encuentran de izquierda a derecha: Maher (comandante de la Guardia Republicana), Bashar al-Ásad, Basel al-Ásad, Majid y Bushra al-Ásad.\nBashar al-Ásad junto al expresidente de Brasil Lula da Silva en 2010.\nPoco después de la muerte de Basel, Hafez al-Ásad tomó la decisión de hacer de Bashar el nuevo heredero.[29]​ Durante los siguientes seis años y medio, hasta su muerte en el año 2000, Hafez se encargó de preparar sistemáticamente a Bashar para su toma de poder. La preparación para una transición sin contratiempos se hizo en tres niveles. En primer lugar, se generó apoyo para Bashar en el Ejército y el aparato de seguridad. En segundo lugar, la imagen de Bashar se estableció con el público. Y por último, Bashar se familiarizó con los mecanismos para gobernar un país.[30]​\nPara establecer sus credenciales en el Ejército, Bashar entró en 1994 en la Academia Militar de Homs, al norte de Damasco. En 1997 ascendió en el Ejército sirio a Teniente Coronel, y en enero de 1999 llegó al rango de Coronel.[24]​[31]​[32]​ Para obtener apoyo en el Ejército, los comandantes de división mayores fueron obligados a jubilarse, y ocuparon sus lugares comandantes nuevos, jóvenes y alauitas con lealtad hacia Bashar.[33]​\nParalelamente a su carrera militar, Bashar se encargó de los asuntos públicos. Se le concedió poder y se convirtió en asesor político del presidente Hafez al-Ássad y jefe de la oficina de quejas del ciudadano. Llevó a cabo una campaña en contra de la corrupción, lo que le permitió eliminar a rivales potenciales para la presidencia.[24]​\nEn 1998 Bashar se encargó de la ocupación siria del Líbano. Desde la década de 1970 se había encargado el vicepresidente Abdul Khaddam, uno de los pocos oficiales sunníes en el gobierno de Ássad y posible candidato hasta entonces para el cargo de presidente.[33]​ Al ocuparse de los asuntos sirios en el Líbano, Bashar fue capaz de apartar a Khaddam y establecer su propia base de poder en el país.[34]​ Ese mismo año, tras consultarlo con políticos libaneses, Bashar puso a Emile Lahoud, un aliado leal, como Presidente del Líbano y apartó al ex primer ministro Rafik Hariri.[35]​\nPara debilitar aún más el antiguo orden sirio en el Líbano, Bashar reemplazó al longevo Alto comisario de facto del Líbano Ghazi Kanaan, con Rustum Ghazali.[36]​\nPresidencia[editar]\nFotografía de Basel al-Ásad, hermano mayor de Bashar, el cual estaba inicialmente destinado a suceder a su padre en la Presidencia de Siria, pero falleció en un accidente automovilístico el año 1994.\nAl morir su padre en el año 2000, Bashar fue ascendido a General del Estado Mayor y Jefe Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas sirias. Nombrado candidato único por el Partido Baath Árabe Socialista para la presidencia de la República, fue elegido mediante referéndum el 10 de julio de 2000, tomando posesión el 17 de julio. El comienzo de su mandato planteó una esperanza de cambio democrático y una apertura económica liberal que fue bien recibida por Occidente (Francia le concedió su Legión de Honor, que le fue retirada en 2018[37]​).\nSin embargo, el tiempo demostró la continuidad de la política de su padre. Tras la apertura «democrática» de 2012 reanimó sus políticas liberales[38]​[39]​[40]​ promoviendo privatizaciones[41]​ y ganándose nuevos socios internacionales como China.[42]​[43]​ También comenzó una promoción al turismo de las costas del mediterráneo sirio.[44]​\nAnte la amenaza de la idea de guerra preventiva llevada a cabo por la administración estadounidense, la inestabilidad en el Líbano (donde Siria mantenía una fuerte presencia militar) y las constantes tensiones con su vecino Israel, Bashar al-Ássad intentó tener un discurso reformista que pudiera satisfacer los deseos de la Unión Europea y Estados Unidos, pero que en la práctica supuso ninguna concesión al movimiento opositor sirio.[45]​\nBashar junto con su esposa y primera dama Asma al-Ásad.\nLa fuerte presión internacional sobre Bashar al-Ásad tras la muerte del ex primer ministro libanés Rafik Hariri, cuya autoría fue atribuida a los servicios secretos sirios, hizo que Al-Ássad mandara retirar las tropas sirias estacionadas en el Líbano.[46]​ Bashar al Ássad fue reelegido en un referéndum convocado al efecto el 27 de mayo de 2007, boicoteado por la oposición en el exilio y en el que obtuvo un 97,62% de sufragios favorables.[47]​ Fue reelegido nuevamente en la elección presidencial del 3 de junio de 2014.[48]​\nDesde 2011, con el inicio de la Guerra Civil Siria, distintos países árabes, la Unión Europea, Estados Unidos, Turquía y otros gobiernos han exigido la renuncia de Bashar al-Ássad, mientras que gobiernos de otros países como Irán (principal aliado en la región), Rusia, China, Corea del Norte, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador y Cuba condenan o no apoyan la intervención extranjera ni el cambio de gobierno en Siria.\nEn enero de 2013, después de que el enviado por las Naciones Unidas y la Liga Árabe, Lakhdar Brahimi, dijo que al-Ássad no debe participar en un gobierno de transición, Walid Mualem, Ministro de Exteriores sirio, llamó a los grupos de la oposición a juntarse con un nuevo gabinete bajo al-Ássad, pero solo si «rechazan la intervención extranjera» en Siria.[49]​\nEl Secretario de Estado de los EE. UU, John Kerry, llegó a admitir en audios filtrados que esperaban que el crecimiento de Daesh pudiera empujar a Al-Assad a negociar, sin embargo la intervención rusa forjó un apoyo que impidió que se acercara a la mesa de negociaciones .[50]​[51]​[52]​\nVida privada[editar]\nCurso estudios de secundaria en la escuela franco-árabe de al-Hurriyah en Damasco. Posteriormente curso la carrera de medicina en la especialidad de oftalmología para, tras realizar prácticas como oficial médico en un hospital militar, completo sus estudios de medicina en Londres, en el Western Eye Hospital, donde se especializo en el tratamiento del glaucoma.[53]​ Habla inglés fluido y tiene dotes de conversación básicas en francés.\nEn diciembre del año 2000 Ássad se casó con Asma al-Ásad, Akhras de soltera,[54]​ una ciudadana británica de origen sirio, oriunda de Acton (Londres).[55]​ El 3 de diciembre de 2001 se convirtieron en padres de su primer hijo, Hafez, llamado en honor de su abuelo Hafez al-Ásad. Zein nació el 5 de noviembre de 2003, y Karim el 16 de diciembre de 2004. Ássad reside en el Palacio Presidencial en Damasco, donde también vivió su padre mientras fue presidente.\nVéase también[editar]\nHistoria de Siria\nRepública Árabe Unida\nSocialismo árabe\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ «¿Quién es el presidente de Siria Bashar al Assad?». CNN en Español. 10 abr. 2017. Consultado el 13 de noviembre de 2017.\n↑ «Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum» (en inglés). The Washington Post. Associated Press. 28 de mayo de 2007.\n↑ «Syria's Assad wins another term». BBC (en inglés) (British Broadcasting Corporation). 29 de mayo de 2007.\n↑ «CIDOB». CIDOB. Consultado el 18 de noviembre de 2015.\n↑ «El león con piel de cordero: Bachar al Ásad, en 10 claves - 20minutos.es». 20minutos.es - Últimas Noticias. https://plus.google.com/+20minutos. Consultado el 18 de noviembre de 2015.\n↑ Lesch, 2011, p. 2.\n↑ Bassem Mroue (18 de abril de 2011). «Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists». The Huffington Post (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 12 de mayo de 2011. Consultado el 20 de abril de 2011.\n↑ «Obama y la UE piden la dimisión de Ásad». Reuters. 18 de agosto de 2011. Consultado el 5 de octubre de 2013.\n↑ «La Liga Árabe pide la renuncia de Ásad para dar salida al conflicto sirio». El Mundo. 23 de julio de 2012. Consultado el 5 de octubre de 2013.\n↑ «Rusia apoyará a Siria en caso de un ataque de Estados Unidos». 6 de septiembre de 2013. Consultado el 29 de mayo de 2014.\n↑ Bronner, Stephen (2007). Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation (en inglés). p. 63.\n↑ «El dictador Bashar al Assad afirmó que está decidido a reconquistar toda Siria». InfoBAE. 12 de febrero de 2016. Consultado el 7 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ El pueblo sirio, amenazado por las intrigas imperialistas y el sectarismo. Consultado el 7 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ «The Assad files: How Syrian dictator handed 'Kill List' of hundreds of Islamic State fighters to British MPs» (en inglés). Telegraph. 11 de junio de 2016. Consultado el 7 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ «Bashar al Assad, dictador por encargo». ABC.es. 14 de octubre de 2015. Consultado el 7 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ «¿Se puede dialogar con el presidente sirio Bashar Asad?». Sputnik News. 7 de marzo de 2015. Consultado el 7 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ a b Zisser, 2007, p. 20.\n↑ Hafez al Assad, padre de Bashar al Assad, fue ratificado hace 50 años en la Presidencia\n↑ Patrick Seale (15 de junio de 2000). «Hafez al-Assad». The Guardian (en inglés) (Londres). Consultado el 19 de marzo de 2011.\n↑ Houghton Mifflin, 2003, p. 74.\n↑ a b Zisser, 2007, p. 21.\n↑ «Syria». National Geographic. Noviembre de 2009. p. 9. Consultado el 24 de noviembre de 2011.\n↑ Leverett, 2005, p. 59.\n↑ a b c «Асад Башар : биография» [Bashar Assad: A Biography]. Ladno (en ruso). Consultado el 23 de septiembre de 2011.\n↑ Beeston, Richard; Blanford, Nick (22 de octubre de 2005). «‘We are going to send him on a trip. Bye, bye Hariri. Rot in hell’». The Times (en inglés) (Londres). Consultado el 26 de abril de 2010.\n↑ Leverett, 2005, p. 60.\n↑ Minahan, 2002, p. 83.\n↑ Tucker y Roberts, 2008, p. 167.\n↑ Zisser, 2007, p. 35.\n↑ Leverett, 2005, p. 61.\n↑ Zisser, 2007, p. 30.\n↑ «CNN Transcript - Breaking News: President Hafez Al-Assad Assad of Syria Confirmed Dead». CNN. 10 de junio de 2000. Consultado el 3 de agosto de 2010.\n↑ a b Ma'oz, Ginat y Winckler, 1999, p. 41.\n↑ Zisser, 2007, p. 34–35.\n↑ Blanford, 2006, p. 69–70.\n↑ Blanford, 2006, p. 88.\n↑ [1]\n↑ «In Syria, Follow the Money to Find the Roots of the Revolt» (en inglés). The Daily Beast. 8 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ Rafizadeh, Majid (6 de septiembre de 2013). «How Bashar al-Assad took Syria to the brink -- and beyond» (en inglés). CNN. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ Rafizadeh, Majid (13 de mayo de 2013). «Assad’s Family: The Unrecognized Nuances and the Politics». Huffpost (en inglés). Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ Henin, Nicolás (2015). «Capítulo III: Money talks». Jihad Academy: the Rise of Islamic State (en inglés). Bloomsbury. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ «Syria: EU Bilateral Trade and Trade with the World». European Commission. Archivado desde el original el 1 de agosto de 2017. Consultado el 18 de septiembre de 2011.\n↑ «The World Factbook». CIA. Consultado el 17 de septiembre de 2011.\n↑ «¿Vacaciones en Siria?». Ámbito.com. 14 de septiembre de 2016. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ López Alonso, José María. (2005). Informe geopolítico : 2006 (1 ed edición). Tecnos. ISBN 84-309-4348-X. OCLC 68085551. Consultado el 25 de febrero de 2021.\n↑ [2]\n↑ Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum: Foes of President Boycott Election, Washington Post, 28 de mayo de 2007 (inglés)\n↑ «Bashar al-Assad wins re-election in Syria as uprising against him rages on». The Guardian. 4 de junio de 2014. Consultado el 29 de septiembre de 2016.\n↑ «Syria crisis: Foreign Minister Mualem calls for talks». BBC News. 19 de enero de 2013. Consultado el 16 de febrero de 2013.\n↑ http://www.hispantv.com/noticias/ee-uu-/329487/kerry-audio-filtrado-utilizar-daesh-derrocar-asad-siria. Falta el |título= (ayuda)\n↑ Administrator. «Estados Unidos confiesa oficialmente que apoyó a los terroristas en Siria: secretario de estado John Kerry». El Clarín de Chile. Archivado desde el original el 10 de agosto de 2018. Consultado el 10 de agosto de 2018.\n↑ “Sabíamos que aquello (Daesh) estaba creciendo, estábamos observando, veíamos a Daesh reforzarse y pensábamos que eso amenazaba a Al-Asad (…) Pensábamos que probablemente podríamos conseguir que Al-Asad acudiese a negociar, pero en lugar de negociaciones nos encontramos con que Al-Asad consiguió que lo apoyara (el presidente ruso, Vladimir) Putin”, dijo Kerry a los sirios.\n↑ [3]\n↑ «The road to Damascus (all the way from Acton)». BBC News (en inglés) (British Broadcasting Corporation). 31 de octubre de 2001. Consultado el 26 de abril de 2010.\n↑ «Syria factfile: Key figures». The Daily Telegraph (Londres). 24 de febrero de 2003. Consultado el 26 de abril de 2010.\nBibliografía[editar]\nMifflin, Houghton (2003). The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-618-25210-7.\nBlanford, Nicholas (2006). Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East (en inglés). I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-202-8.\nLane, Jan-Erik; Redissi, Hamadi (2004). Religion And Politics: Islam And Muslim Civilisation (en inglés). Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-4167-4.\nLeverett, Flynt L. (2005). Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire (en inglés). Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-5204-2.\nLesch, David W. (2011). Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad (en inglés). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18651-2.\nMinahan, James (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C (en inglés). Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32109-2.\nMa'oz, Moshe; Ginat, Joseph; Winckler, Onn (1999). Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East (en inglés). Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-83-4.\nTucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History (en inglés). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-841-5.\nZisser, Eyal (2007). Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power (en inglés). I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-153-3.\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nWikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Bashar al-Ásad.\nWikinoticias tiene noticias relacionadas con Bashar al-Ásad.\nBiografía de Bashar al-Assad por CIDOB (en español)\nPredecesor:\nHafez al-Asad\nPresidente de Siria\n17 de julio de 2000-actualidad Sucesor:\nen el cargo\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q44329\nMultimedia: Bashar al-Assad\nNoticias: Categoría:Bashar al-Assad\nCitas célebres: Bashar Al-Assad\nIdentificadores\nWorldCat\nVIAF: 10926769\nISNI: 0000 0001 1487 7178\nBNE: XX4668678\nBNF: 155413327 (data)\nGND: 129516678\nLCCN: no2003021487\nNKC: jo2004259843\nSUDOC: 081954115\nBIBSYS: 11068639\nDiccionarios y enciclopedias\nBritannica: url\nTreccani: url\nCine\nIMDb: nm1519747\nDatos: Q44329\nMultimedia: Bashar al-Assad\nNoticias: Categoría:Bashar al-Assad\nCitas célebres: Bashar Al-Assad\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bashar_al-Ásad&oldid=138003472»\nCategorías:\nHombres\nNacidos en 1965\nPresidentes de Siria\nFamilia Asad\nPersonas de la guerra civil siria\nPolíticos del Partido Baath Árabe Socialista (Siria)\nAlumnado de la Universidad de Damasco\nOrden del Libertador\nBashar al-Ásad\nNacidos en Damasco\nOftalmólogos\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Páginas con plantillas con argumentos duplicados\nWikipedia:Páginas con referencias sin título\nWikipedia:Páginas con referencias sin título y con URL\nWikipedia:Artículos con texto en árabe\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores ISNI\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNE\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNF\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN\nWikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BIBSYS\nWikipedia:Control de autoridades con 16 elementos\nPersonas vivas\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nWikinoticias\nWikiquote\nEn otros idiomas\nAfrikaans\nAragonés\nالعربية\nܐܪܡܝܐ\nمصرى\nAsturianu\nAzərbaycanca\nتۆرکجه\nBikol Central\nБеларуская\nБеларуская (тарашкевіца)\nБългарски\nবাংলা\nBrezhoneg\nBosanski\nCatalà\nНохчийн\nکوردی\nČeština\nЧӑвашла\nCymraeg\nDansk\nDeutsch\nZazaki\nडोटेली\nΕλληνικά\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nFrysk\nGaeilge\nGalego\nעברית\nहिन्दी\nHrvatski\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nԱրեւմտահայերէն\nBahasa Indonesia\nInterlingue\nIdo\nÍslenska\nItaliano\n日本語\nქართული\nҚазақша\n한국어\nKurdî\nLatina\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nМакедонски\nമലയാളം\nमराठी\nBahasa Melayu\nनेपाली\nNederlands\nNorsk nynorsk\nNorsk bokmål\nOccitan\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nKapampangan\nPapiamentu\nPolski\nپنجابی\nپښتو\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nСаха тыла\nSicilianu\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nSimple English\nSlovenčina\nSlovenščina\nShqip\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nKiswahili\nSakizaya\nதமிழ்\nТоҷикӣ\nไทย\nTürkçe\nТатарча/tatarça\nУкраїнська\nاردو\nOʻzbekcha/ўзбекча\nVepsän kel’\nTiếng Việt\n吴语\nייִדיש\nYorùbá\n中文\nBân-lâm-gú\n粵語\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 30 ago 2021 a las 10:01.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de 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{"content":"Cartel propagandístico japonés durante la Guerra ruso-japonesa en donde se muestra al Imperio Ruso (actual Rusia) como un pulpo gigante que estrangula con sus tentáculos a todas las naciones de Eurasia.\nRevista Puck, 1903\nLa rusofobia o sentimiento antirruso engloba un amplio espectro de sentimientos vinculados con prejuicios, temores o aversiones hacia Rusia, los rusos, la lengua rusa, la madre Rusia y la cultura rusa. En la política internacional moderna, el término \"rusofobia\" se utiliza más específicamente para describir asuntos conservados de la época de la Guerra Fría.[1]​[2]​\nMuchos prejuicios presentan a menudo elementos de guerra política contra la Unión Soviética, que se siguen viendo en los debates de las actuales relaciones con Rusia. La amplitud de la rusofobia varía considerablemente de un país a otro, y no solo depende de la geografía, sino también de la historia y de otros variados factores. La intensidad de la rusofobia ha evolucionado en diversos países a lo largo de la historia.\nSuele ser objeto de disputa si el sentimiento hostil hacia Rusia (tanto en la actualidad como en su pasado) es la consecuencia de una evaluación racional de sus políticas específicas, o bien se trata de un sistema compuesto de creencias y prejuicios estereotipados más allá de las acciones o políticas concretas.\nEn la segunda mitad de la década del 2010, el gobierno ruso y otros gobiernos afines han llevado a cabo una intensa campaña de denuncia de la supuesta rusofobia en Occidente, alegando la misma como causa de las acusaciones sobre presuntas responsabilidades del gobierno de Putin en sucesos dentro de, entre otros, la Guerra en el Donbáss, la Guerra civil siria, el Brexit, el auge del populismo en países de la Unión Europea y la victoria presidencial de Donald Trump en los Estados Unidos.\nSe da la circunstancia que el brusco auge de la utilización del concepto rusofobia por los medios estatales y el Ministerio de Exteriores de Rusia se produjo a partir de 2014, año de la Crisis de Crimea, como herramienta en la guerra de la información.[3]​\nÍndice\n1 Historia\n2 Reivindicación de actitudes hacia Rusia y hacia los rusos\n3 Incidencia en el mundo\n3.1 Ucrania\n3.2 Polonia\n3.3 Países Bálticos\n4 Referencias\n5 Véase también\n6 Bibliografía\n7 Enlaces externos\nHistoria[editar]\nCartel en el museo del comunismo de Praga.\nHegel y una parte del idealismo alemán negaban a los eslavos, a los rusos y cualquiera de sus contribuciones a la civilización europea, e incluso el derecho de su cultura y a su gente de una existencia histórica independiente.\n\"No importa que un inglés llegue a Rusia como un rusófobo y parta de Rusia como rusofílico.\"\nMarqués George Nathaniel Curzon, ex-Virrey de Indias (1899 - 1905) y Ministro Británico de Relaciones Exteriores.\nEn las décadas de 1930 y 1940, Adolf Hitler y el NSDAP consideraban que la Unión Soviética estaba poblada por esclavos gobernados por amos \"judíos bolcheviques\". Hitler declaró en Mein Kampf su creencia de que el estado ruso era obra de elementos alemanes en el país y no de los eslavos:\nAquí, el destino mismo parece querer darnos una señal. Al entregar Rusia al bolchevismo, despojó a la nación rusa de esa intelectualidad que anteriormente provocó y garantizó su existencia como Estado. Porque la organización de un estado ruso, la formación no fue el resultado de las habilidades políticas de los eslavos en Rusia, sino solo un excelente ejemplo de la eficacia formadora de estado del elemento alemán en una raza inferior. [4]​\nUn plan secreto nazi, el Generalplan Ost pedía la esclavización, expulsión o exterminio de la mayoría de los pueblos eslavos de Europa. Aproximadamente 2,8 millones de prisioneros de guerra soviéticos murieron de hambre, maltrato o ejecuciones en sólo ocho meses de 1941-1942.\n\"La necesidad, el hambre, la falta de consuelo han sido la suerte de los rusos durante siglos. Sin falsa compasión, ya que sus estómagos son perfectamente extensibles. No intente imponer los estándares alemanes y cambiar su estilo de vida. Su el único deseo es ser gobernados por los alemanes. [...] ¡Ayúdense y que Dios los ayude! \"\n\" 12 preceptos para el oficial alemán en el Este \", 1941\nEl 13 de julio de 1941, tres semanas después de la invasión de la Unión Soviética, el líder de las SS nazis, Heinrich Himmler, le dijo al grupo de hombres de las Waffen-SS:\nEsta es una batalla ideológica y una lucha de razas. Aquí, en esta lucha, se encuentra el nacionalsocialismo: una ideología basada en el valor de nuestra sangre germánica y nórdica. ... En el otro lado está una población de 180 millones, una mezcla de razas, cuyos nombres son impronunciables y cuyo físico es tal que uno puede derribarlos sin piedad y compasión. Estos animales, que torturan y maltratan a todos los prisioneros de nuestro lado, a todos los heridos con los que se encuentran y no los tratan como lo harían los soldados decentes, lo verán ustedes mismos. Esta gente ha sido fusionada por los judíos en una religión, una ideología, que se llama bolchevismo ... Cuando ustedes, mis hombres, luchan allá en el Este, están llevando a cabo la misma lucha, contra la misma subhumanidad, las mismas razas inferiores, que en un momento aparecieron bajo el nombre de hunos, en otro tiempo, hace 1000 años en la época del rey Enrique y Otón I, bajo el nombre de magiares, en otro tiempo bajo el nombre de tártaros, y aún en otro tiempo bajo el nombre de Genghis Khan y los mongoles. Hoy aparecen como rusos bajo la bandera política del bolchevismo.[5]​\nReivindicación de actitudes hacia Rusia y hacia los rusos[editar]\nEn octubre de 2004, la Organización Internacional Gallup anunció que, según un sondeo, el sentimiento anti-ruso es relativamente fuerte en Europa, y sobre todo en Occidente. Se constató así que Rusia era, y probablemente es, el país menos popular del G-8 en el mundo occidental.[6]​\nEl porcentaje de la población que tiene una percepción negativa de Rusia era del 62% en Finlandia, 57% en Noruega, 42% en Chequia y en Suiza, 37% en Alemania, 32% en Dinamarca y en Polonia, 23% en Estonia, y 73% en Kosovo.\nIncidencia en el mundo[editar]\nUcrania[editar]\nCamisetas en ucraniano con mensajes rusófobos.\nLas que tienen la caricatura de un hombre con apariencia de cosaco de Zaporozhia dicen: «¡Gracias a Dios que no soy un moscal!».\nLa camiseta roja en la parte de la imagen dice: «¡Levántate Ucrania, que los moscalí no duermen por una hora!».\nEl apelativo moscalí es una forma de referirse a los rusos con una connotación negativa; es una adaptación polaca de la palabra moscovali que en idioma turco significa nativo de (el principado de) Moscovia, es decir, moscovita.\nSe corresponde con el apelativo ucrainófobo ruso jojlý, jojol en singular.\nPolonia[editar]\nLos responsables rusos afirman francamente que los sentimientos negativos hacia Rusia están bastante extendidos en Polonia.[7]​ Se publicó en el Civil society transparency and anti-corruption activities en Polonia que numerosos polacos parecen interesados en la política exterior rusa, pues tienen miedo que ese extenso país busque reconstruir su desmembrado anterior imperio bajo una forma diferente.\nPaíses Bálticos[editar]\nEn las antiguas repúblicas bálticas (Estonia, Letonia y Lituania) han tenido lugar degradaciones y traslados a necrópolis de monumentos de la época soviética. Fueron originados por el sentimiento antisoviético que allí se desarrolló a consecuencia de la ocupación de las repúblicas bálticas durante la Segunda guerra mundial en los años 1940-1941 y las posteriores deportaciones masivas de habitantes entre 1944 y 1953.\nReferencias[editar]\n↑ «Envoy complains Britons mistreat Russians». Reuters. 8 de julio de 2007. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2007. «Aparte del uso frecuente en el los medios de comunicación, el término \"rusofobia\" se utilizó específicamente por el embajador ruso Yuri Fedótov para describir el nivel de las relaciones ruso-británicas en el año 2007.»\n↑ \"The west's new Russophobia is hypocritical - and wrong\", The Guardian, June 30, 2006\n↑ #PutinAtWar: How Russia Weaponized “Russophobia”. AtlanticCouncil's Digital Forensic Research Lab, 2018\n↑ Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf , Volumen uno - Un ajuste de cuentas, Capítulo XIV: Orientación oriental o política oriental\n↑ Stein, George H (1984). The Waffen SS: Hitler's Elite Guard at War, 1939–1945. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-8014-9275-4. (requiere registro).\n↑ Mesurar la rusofobia, estudio realizado en 2007 por la sociedad E-generator.ru, con el objetivo de mesurar el grado de rusofobia de los grandes periódicos internacionales (según este estudio, Le Monde sería la publicación más rusofóbica de la prensa francesa, la que se categorizaría en la posición cuarta en el rango internacional (en ruso). Archivado el 9 de mayo de 2007 en Wayback Machine.\n↑ Jakub Boratyński\nEsta obra contiene una traducción parcial derivada de «Russophobie» de Wikipedia en francés, publicada por sus editores bajo la Licencia de documentación libre de GNU y la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-CompartirIgual 3.0 Unported.\nVéase también[editar]\nXenofobia\nAntiamericanismo\nAntisemitismo\nTérminos antiétnicos y antinacionalistas\nRusificación\nRusificación de Ucrania\nRusificación de Finlandia\nRusificación de Bielorrusia (en inglés)\nRusificación de Polonia (en inglés)\nCronología de prohibiciones del idioma ucraniano\nCircular de Valúev (en:Valuev Circular)\nUkaz de Ems\nIdioma ruso en Ucrania\nUcrainofobia\nen:Anti-Ukrainian sentiment (en inglés)\nru:Украинофобия (en ruso)\nTalergof\nRusofilia\nBibliografía[editar]\nGleason, J.H., (1950) The genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain . Cambridge, Harvard University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxford University Press (en inglés).\nLieven, A., Against Russophobia. Carnegy, World Policy Journal, 2000/2001 (en inglés).\nEnlaces externos[editar]\nDe la russophobie avec sang-froid, Piotr Romanov, Ria Novosti, 17 de abril de 2004.\n« Libération » y « Le Figaro » : « L’homme russe » c'e primitif. Cédric Housez, Réseau Voltaire, 28 de febrero de 2006 (en francés).\nCette Russie qu’occultent les clichés. Jean-Marie Chauvier, Le Monde diplomatique, marzo de 2008 (en francés).\nRussophobie parisienne : le patriarche Cyrille déclaré \"trop russe\" et amalgamé aux skinheads, Patrice de Plunkett, 20 de enero de 2009.\nDenys Pluvinage, exalumno del Institut supérieur de gestion de Paris (ISG) trabajó en Rusia de 1992 à 2006, y publicó sobre el blog de exalumnos del ISG, las notas sobre su intervención en oportunidad de una conferencia relativa a la rusofobia, organizada por los citados exalumnos el 25 de noviembre de 2008.\nLa fabricación del enemigo: El caso ruso, Pierre Conesa, Libération, 31 de diciembre de 2009. (en francés)\nControl de autoridades\nProyectos Wikimedia\nDatos: Q512990\nMultimedia: Anti-Russian sentiment\nDatos: Q512990\nMultimedia: Anti-Russian sentiment\nObtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rusofobia&oldid=132803306»\nCategorías:\nRusofobia\nEstudios eslavos\nAntieslavismo\nCategorías ocultas:\nWikipedia:Páginas con referencias que requieren registro\nWikipedia:Páginas con traducciones del francés\nMenú de navegación\nHerramientas personales\nNo has accedido\nDiscusión\nContribuciones\nCrear una cuenta\nAcceder\nEspacios de nombres\nArtículo\nDiscusión\nVariantes\nVistas\nLeer\nEditar\nVer historial\nMás\nBuscar\nNavegación\nPortada\nPortal de la comunidad\nActualidad\nCambios recientes\nPáginas nuevas\nPágina aleatoria\nAyuda\nDonaciones\nNotificar un error\nHerramientas\nLo que enlaza aquí\nCambios en enlazadas\nSubir archivo\nPáginas especiales\nEnlace permanente\nInformación de la página\nCitar esta página\nElemento de Wikidata\nImprimir/exportar\nCrear un libro\nDescargar como PDF\nVersión para imprimir\nEn otros proyectos\nWikimedia Commons\nEn otros idiomas\nالعربية\nБеларуская\nБеларуская (тарашкевіца)\nБългарски\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEnglish\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nHrvatski\nՀայերեն\nBahasa Indonesia\n日本語\nქართული\nҚазақша\n한국어\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nBahasa Melayu\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nPortuguês\nRomână\nРусский\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nTürkçe\nУкраїнська\nVepsän kel’\nTiếng Việt\n中文\nEditar enlaces\nEsta página se editó por última vez el 29 ene 2021 a las 22:43.\nEl texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad.\nWikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro.","warc_headers":{"warc-target-uri":"https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusofobia","warc-identified-content-language":"spa,eng,fra","content-type":"text/plain","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:e02824ef-33d1-462a-a392-ac53b64e7911>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:58:49Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:4698f915-f8ed-4082-a644-5c31c868b85d>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:YCBLNV7RBBZDAU5S3BAG7G6LD5RHOXA2","content-length":"12956"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"es","prob":0.7747211},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"es","prob":0.95215446},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.93699574},{"label":"es","prob":0.9688025},{"label":"es","prob":0.98798215},{"label":"es","prob":0.9693179},{"label":"es","prob":0.97132653},{"label":"pt","prob":0.9761648},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9919409},{"label":"es","prob":0.966869},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8985311},{"label":"es","prob":1.0000495},{"label":"es","prob":0.89543086},{"label":"es","prob":0.93424726},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9142573},{"label":"es","prob":0.96864486},{"label":"es","prob":0.9845438},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.96472555},{"label":"es","prob":0.9918951},{"label":"es","prob":0.9478181},{"label":"es","prob":0.9881816},{"label":"es","prob":0.963495},{"label":"es","prob":0.98063815},{"label":"es","prob":0.99437445},{"label":"es","prob":0.9816106},{"label":"es","prob":0.9693774},{"label":"es","prob":0.9531668},{"label":"es","prob":0.88319784},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.98632896},{"label":"es","prob":0.9278589},{"label":"es","prob":0.9798829},{"label":"es","prob":0.94700754},{"label":"es","prob":0.8538338},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.91896623},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97114563},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9847004},{"label":"en","prob":0.9707187},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.82847756},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9800528},{"label":"pl","prob":0.88108724},{"label":"es","prob":0.94738966},{"label":"es","prob":0.9974705},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.872366},{"label":"es","prob":0.94491607},{"label":"es","prob":0.9771134},{"label":"es","prob":0.9232314},{"label":"es","prob":0.9989113},{"label":"es","prob":0.9989756},{"label":"es","prob":0.95210505},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9797363},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.99143547},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8046586},null,null,{"label":"fr","prob":0.9382228},null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9578266},{"label":"es","prob":0.97316813},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95524096},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.881974},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9087889},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.95855117},{"label":"es","prob":0.9815053},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83212054},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},{"label":"es","prob":0.9347043},{"label":"es","prob":0.9675419},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9412192},{"label":"es","prob":1.000044},{"label":"es","prob":1.000039},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.97421294},null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.94969976},{"label":"es","prob":0.9978318},{"label":"es","prob":0.85790265},{"label":"es","prob":0.9795959},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9929005},{"label":"es","prob":0.93404084},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.81268334},{"label":"es","prob":0.99465567},{"label":"es","prob":0.9953585},{"label":"es","prob":1.000046},{"label":"es","prob":0.8346713},{"label":"es","prob":0.9403519},{"label":"es","prob":0.9988059},{"label":"es","prob":0.93444204},null,null,null,null,{"label":"es","prob":0.9840405},{"label":"es","prob":0.998532},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.987568},null,null,null,{"label":"bg","prob":0.9979911},null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},{"label":"et","prob":1.000088},null,null,{"label":"fi","prob":0.9453278},null,{"label":"hr","prob":0.9386292},{"label":"hy","prob":1.00008},{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},{"label":"ja","prob":1.0000484},{"label":"ka","prob":0.9957717},{"label":"kk","prob":0.98558193},{"label":"ko","prob":1.00007},{"label":"lt","prob":1.0000594},{"label":"lv","prob":0.9998077},{"label":"ms","prob":0.8052252},{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},{"label":"ro","prob":0.99815744},null,null,{"label":"sr","prob":0.8570989},{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},null,{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},null,{"label":"vi","prob":0.99561477},{"label":"zh","prob":0.81862706},{"label":"es","prob":0.9983662},{"label":"es","prob":0.9927447},{"label":"es","prob":0.97479784},{"label":"es","prob":0.93567866}]}}
{"content":"Jahanara Begum (Vorname persisch جهان آرا, DMG Ǧahān-Ārā, ‚die die Welt Schmückende‘, geb. 2. April 1614; gest. 16. September 1681) war die älteste überlebende Tochter des Großmoguls von Indien Shah Jahan (Prinz Khurram) und seiner Lieblingsfrau Mumtaz Mahal. Deren Vater Asaf Khan war Wesir bei Jahangir und ebnete ihrem Gatten beim Tod Jahangirs den Weg zum Thron.\nJahanara übernahm nach dem frühen Tod ihrer Mutter die Rolle der ersten Dame bei Hofe. Ihr Vater liebte sie sehr und stattete sie reichlich mit Einkünften aus. Sie war eine großzügige Mäzenatin der Künste, stiftete mehrere Moscheen (darunter die Jama Masjid in Agra), ließ Gärten, Pavillons und Häuser bauen und war selbst eine geschätzte Dichterin. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass sie großen Einfluss auf die künstlerische Gestaltung des Taj Mahals nahm, dem Grabmal ihrer Mutter.\nJahanara war am Hofe ihres Vaters sehr geachtet, hatte großen Einfluss auf ihn und genoss relativ große Freiheiten, wenn er auch das Heiratsverbot für Mogulprinzessinnen, welches Akbar I. erlassen hatte, nicht aufhob, obwohl es Hinweise gibt, dass Jahanara gerne geheiratet hätte. Es gibt Hinweise auf Romanzen in ihrem Leben, welche jedoch entdeckt und rücksichtslos beendet wurden.\nIm März 1644 fingen Jahanaras Kleider Feuer, und sie erlitt schwere Verbrennungen. Dies wurde bei Hofe allgemein als Katastrophe empfunden. Mehrere Ärzte brauchten über ein Jahr, bis die Wunden verheilt waren. Die Genesung wurde mit einem Staatsfest begangen.[1]\nJahanara unterstützte ihren ältesten Bruder Dara Shikoh beim Ringen um den Thron. Dieser wurde jedoch vom jüngeren Aurangzeb besiegt und ermordet. Dara Shikoh hatte ihr versprochen, das Heiratsverbot aufzuheben, wenn er den Thron erringen würde.\nAurangzeb setzte im Jahr 1658 seinen Vater gefangen und Jahanara pflegte ihn bis zu dessen Tod. Danach versiegen die Quellen zu Jahanara – vermutlich wurde sie von ihrem fanatisch-religiösen Bruder Aurangzeb aus dem Weg geschafft; auf jeden Fall bemächtigte er sich ihres beachtlichen Vermögens. Mit Aurangzeb setzte der Niedergang der Mogulkunst ein.\nSiehe auch[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nNur Jahan\nLiteratur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nW. E. Begley: Taj Mahal, the Illumined Tomb. The Aga Khan Programm for Islamic Architecture, 1989, ISBN 0-295-96944-X.\nEllison Banks Findley: Nur Jahan, Empress of Mughal India. Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-19-507488-2.\nStephen P. Blake: Shahjahanabad, The Sovereign City in Mughal India 1639–1739. Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-521-52299-4.\nBanarsi Prasad Saksena: History of Shahjahan of Delhi. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2013, ISBN 978-81-8090-310-6.\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ Banarsi Prasad Saksena: History of Shahjahan of Delhi. 2. Auflage. Central Book Depot, Allahabad 1962, S. 316. (1. Aufl. 1932.)\nNormdaten (Person): GND: 130139009 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: n97940419 | VIAF: 57711033 | Wikipedia-Personensuche\nPersonendaten\nNAME Jahanara Begum\nKURZBESCHREIBUNG Tochter des Großmoguls von Indien Schah Jahan\nGEBURTSDATUM 2. April 1614\nSTERBEDATUM 16. September 1681\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jahanara_Begum&oldid=206241662“\nKategorien:\nTimuride (Mogulreich)\nKunstmäzen\nInder\nGeboren 1614\nGestorben 1681\nFrau\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nالعربية\nঅসমীয়া\nتۆرکجه\nবাংলা\nCatalà\nČeština\nEnglish\nEspañol\nفارسی\nFrançais\nहिन्दी\nBahasa Indonesia\nItaliano\n日本語\nമലയാളം\nमराठी\nBahasa Melayu\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nپنجابی\nپښتو\nРусский\nسنڌي\nSvenska\nதமிழ்\nతెలుగు\nTürkçe\nاردو\nOʻzbekcha/ўзбекча\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 5. 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Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:9aea0e72-273c-4994-852c-c8aae4c33370>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:d8091a05-78ef-4329-8170-e663a0682cf4>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:38:47Z","content-length":"4962","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahanara_Begum","warc-block-digest":"sha1:A6FDL4BZZRQZK4FZBB5IYS4EWMFAMAHC","warc-identified-content-language":"deu,eng"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.69546217},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.9520576},{"label":"de","prob":0.9992224},{"label":"de","prob":0.99743885},{"label":"de","prob":0.99901277},{"label":"de","prob":0.9946064},{"label":"de","prob":0.99790424},{"label":"de","prob":0.99697727},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.96715546},null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98497194},null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98466265},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8439069},{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},{"label":"de","prob":0.849124},null,null,{"label":"nl","prob":0.81999844},null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8391272},{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},null,{"label":"as","prob":0.98142564},null,null,{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},{"label":"es","prob":0.8222208},null,null,{"label":"hi","prob":0.883866},{"label":"id","prob":0.9134856},null,{"label":"ja","prob":1.0000484},{"label":"ml","prob":1.0000544},{"label":"mr","prob":0.9926708},{"label":"ms","prob":0.8052252},{"label":"pa","prob":0.9999484},{"label":"pnb","prob":0.9576152},null,null,{"label":"sd","prob":0.9986095},{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},{"label":"ta","prob":0.98073053},{"label":"te","prob":0.99990374},null,null,{"label":"uz","prob":0.8821043},{"label":"de","prob":0.85126376},{"label":"de","prob":0.99996203},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"Cassino ist eine italienische Stadt in der Provinz Frosinone in der Region Latium mit 36.283 Einwohnern (Stand 31. Dezember 2019). Sie ist vor allem für die Benediktinerabtei Montecassino bekannt, die Benedikt von Nursia auf dem gleichnamigen Hügel oberhalb der Stadt erbaute. Sie ist die zweitgrößte Stadt der Provinz und das wirtschaftliche Zentrum der Osthälfte der Provinz Frosinone. Cassino ist Sitz einer Universität.\nBis 1863 hieß die Stadt San Germano.[2]\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Geographie\n1.1 Lage\n1.2 Nachbargemeinden\n1.3 Verkehr\n2 Name\n3 Geschichte\n4 Bildungseinrichtungen\n5 Sehenswürdigkeiten\n6 Wirtschaft\n7 Politik\n8 Städtepartnerschaften\n9 Persönlichkeiten\n10 Literatur\n11 Weblinks\n12 Einzelnachweise\nGeographie[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Ebene von Cassino\nLage[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCassino liegt 131 km südöstlich von Rom, 98 km nördlich von Neapel und 53 km südöstlich von Frosinone. Zur Küste bei Minturno beträgt die Entfernung 37 km.\nCassino liegt im Tal des Liri, am Fluss Rapido, der 8 km südlich der Stadt in den Liri mündet, und am Fuße des Berges Montecassino, Ausläufer des Massivs des Monte Cairo. Seine Stadtteile sind Caira und Montecassino im Massiv des Monte Cairo sowie San Cesareo, Sant’Angelo in Theodice, Sant’Antonio, San Pasquale und San Michele, die in der Ebene liegen. Das Gemeindegebiet erstreckt sich über eine Höhe von 18 bis 841 m s.l.m.\nDie Gemeinde befindet sich in der Erdbebenzone 2 (mittel gefährdet).[3]\nNachbargemeinden[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Nachbargemeinden sind im Uhrzeigersinn: Villa Santa Lucia, Terelle, Sant’Elia Fiumerapido, Cervaro, San Vittore del Lazio, Rocca d’Evandro (CE), Sant’Apollinare und Pignataro Interamna.\nVerkehr[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCassino liegt an der Autobahn A1 Autostrada del Sole von Rom nach Neapel, Ausfahrt Cassino. Die historische Straßenverbindung ist die Via Casilina, in der Antike Via Latina, die heute als Staatsstraße SS6 klassifiziert ist.\nCassino besitzt einen Bahnhof an der Bahnstrecke Rom–Neapel.\nName[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIn der Zeit der Zugehörigkeit zum Römischen Reich trug der Ort den Namen Casinum. Nach der Klostergründung auf dem Montecassino 529 hatte das Kloster zuerst die Bezeichnung Castellum Sancti Petri, die auch auf die Siedlung am Fuß des Hügels überging. Später taucht dann der Name Eulogimenopoli in Dokumenten auf. Mit der Übertragung der Reliquien des Heiligen Germanus 866 in den Ort setzte sich der Name San Germano durch. Am 23. Mai 1863 beschloss der Gemeinderat von San Germano, wieder den italienisierten antiken Namen Cassino anzunehmen.[4]\nGeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCassino nach der Zerstörung 1944\nDeutscher Soldatenfriedhof\nCasinum war eine volskische, dann samnitische Stadt im Süden Latiums.[5] In der römischen Geschichtsschreibung wird sie selten erwähnt, zuerst im 2. Punischen Krieg.[6] Das antike Casinum besaß ein Amphitheater und ein Theater, mehrere Tempel und war von einer Stadtmauer umgeben.[7]\n529 n. Chr. gründete Benedikt von Nursia die Abtei Montecassino an der Stelle der antiken Akropolis. 577 wurden Kloster und Stadt durch die Langobarden unter Zotto zerstört, der Casinum dem Herzogtum Benevent einverleibte, wenn auch faktisch die Äbte des Klosters die Macht ausübten. 744 gewährte Herzog Gisulf II. dem Klosterterritorium offiziell die Unabhängigkeit. 883 wurden Stadt und Kloster ein zweites Mal, nunmehr von den Sarazenen, zerstört.\n1230 traf sich Friedrich II. in der Stadt, die nun San Germano hieß, mit Papst Gregor IX., um Frieden zu schließen. 1503 endete die territoriale Unabhängigkeit des Klosters und San Germano wurde Teil des Königreichs Neapel.\n1806 kam der Ort zur Provinz Terra del Lavoro und wechselte 1927 zur Provinz Frosinone und damit wieder zu Latium.[8]\nIm Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde die Stadt am 15. Februar 1944 bei einem alliierten Bombenangriff zerstört und war anschließend nach der Besetzung des Berges durch deutsche Truppen Zentrum der Schlacht um Monte Cassino, wobei die Stadt völlig zerstört wurde. Am 15. März 2014 fand zum 70. Jahrestag dieses Ereignisses eine Gedenkfeier statt, an der Italiens Staatspräsident Giorgio Napolitano teilnahm.[9]\nBevölkerungsentwicklung\nJahr\n1861\n1881\n1901\n1921\n1936\n1951\n1971\n1991\n2001\n2017\nEinwohner\n7.929 11.770 13.397 19.001 20.064 19.256 24.696 32.787 32.762 36.511\nQuelle: ISTAT\nBildungseinrichtungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDrei allgemeinbildende staatliche Schulen mit Grundschule (Scuola primaria) und Sekundarstufe bzw. als Gesamtschule konzipiert. Eine davon ist mit einer Vorschule ausgestattet, die auch Kurse in der Erwachsenenbildung anbietet. Außerdem gibt es eine private 6-jährige Grundschule mit Vorschule, einen privaten Kindergarten für Kinder von 3 Monaten bis 3 Jahren.\nZwei Lyzeen: Eines davon mit dem Schwerpunkt „Klassische Bildung“ und einem breiten Spektrum an zusätzlichen Angeboten. Die Abschlussprüfung ermöglicht den Zugang zu allen universitären Ausbildungsgängen. Das zweite bietet den Schwerpunkt „Wissenschaft und humanistische Tradition“. Es ermöglicht den Zugang zu einer Ausbildung bzw. Berufstätigkeit in Industrie- und Handel, sowie zur Zulassung zur Universität.\nVier Handels- bzw. Gewerbeschulen mit Elementen wissenschaftlicher Ausbildung und einer Abschlussqualifikation für ein Studium. Die Ausbildungen gibt es im kaufmännisch- informatikwissenschaftlichen Bereich wie Verwaltung, Finanzen und Marketing, Wirtschaftsinformatik und Tourismus. Es gibt Ausbildungsgänge in Naturwissenschaft und Technik, wie Chemie, Materialien und Biotechnologie, Elektronik und Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, Maschinenbau, Mechatronik und Energie; ferner Ausbildungen im sozial- und sprachlich-kommunikativen Bereich, in der Wartung und technischen Unterstützung. Außerdem Ausbildungen für medizinisch-soziale Berufe, für die Produktion in Industrie und Handwerk, speziell auch für die Bekleidungsindustrie, sowie die Ausbildung an einer Kunstschule.[10]\nDie Universität Cassino wurde 1979 als staatliche Universität gegründet. 2015 waren ca. 8000 Studenten immatrikuliert. Die Einrichtungen der Universität befinden sich zentral in Cassino als auch an anderen Orten der Umgebung.\nSehenswürdigkeiten[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAbtei Montecassino\nDer wichtigste Anziehungspunkt für Pilger und Touristen ist die Abtei Montecassino.\nIn der archäologischen Zone am Südwesteingang der Innenstadt befinden sich das Archäologische Nationalmuseum, die Ruinen des Amphitheaters, des Theaters und das Mausoleum der Ummidia Quadratilla aus der Gens Ummidia, der Erbauerin des Theaters.\nAuf halbem Weg zum Montecassino liegt die mittelalterliche Burg Rocca Janula.\nIm Museum Historiale werden die Ereignisse um die Schlacht um Monte Cassino behandelt.\nSoldatenfriedhöfe\nBei der Schlacht um Monte Cassino starben auf beiden Seiten insgesamt über 70.000 Soldaten. Daher gibt es heute im Gebiet der Stadt Friedhöfe für die Gefallenen aus Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien, Polen und dem Commonwealth. Auf der Deutschen Kriegsgräberstätte Cassino im Norden der Stadt ruhen 20.076 Tote.[11]\nWirtschaft[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Wirtschaft ist fixiert auf den Dienstleistungssektor. Es folgen in weitem Abstand das produzierende Gewerbe, Betriebe der verarbeitenden Industrie sowie Reparatur- und Transportbetriebe. Daneben sind die chemische und pharmazeutische Industrie, die Modebranche und der Tourismussektor von Bedeutung. In Cassino entstand dank der Ansiedlung des Fiatwerkes im nahen Piedimonte San Germano Zulieferungsindustrie.\nHandwerksbetriebe stellen die häufigste Unternehmensform dar. Die Jugendarbeitslosigkeit liegt über dem italienischen Durchschnitt.[12]\nEine wichtige Rolle spielt die 1979 gegründete Universität Cassino.\nPolitik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGiuseppe Golini Petrarcone (IdV) wurde im Mai 2011 zum Bürgermeister gewählt. Sein Mitte-links-Bündnis stellte auch mit 17 von 24 Sitzen die Mehrheit im Gemeinderat.[13] Er löste Bruno Scittarelli (UDC) ab, der von 2001 bis 2011 amtierte. Petrarcone war bereits einmal von 1993 bis 1997 Bürgermeister von Cassino.\nSeit dem 20. Juni 2016 ist Carlo Maria D’Alessandro Bürgermeister.\nStädtepartnerschaften[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAls Partnerstädte nennt die Stadt Cassino folgende:[14]\nDeutschland Bezirk Steglitz-Zehlendorf von Berlin, Deutschland, seit 1969\nPolen Zamość, Polen, seit 1969\nFrankreich Falaise, Frankreich, seit 1974\nPolen Tychy, Polen, seit 1977\nSerbien Užice, Serbien seit 1981\nKanada North York, Kanada, seit 1987\nTschechien Karlovy Vary, Tschechien, seit 1991\nItalien Ortona, Italien, seit 1991\nAustralien Casino, Australien, seit 1997\nItalien Cavarzere, Italien, seit 1998\nSeit 2015 besteht ein Freundschafts- und Kooperationsabkommen mit der chinesischen Stadt Xianning.\nPersönlichkeiten[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAntonio Labriola (1843–1904), Professor der theoretischen Philosophie an der Universität Rom\nMartino Matronola (1903–1994), Erzabt-Bischof von Montecassino\nFrancesco Storace (* 1959), Politiker\nDomenico Di Carlo (* 1964), Fußballspieler und -trainer\nAlessandra Buonanno (* 1968), Astrophysikerin\nArturo Gatti (1972–2009), italienisch-kanadischer Boxer\nAngelo Ogbonna (* 1988), Fußballspieler\nLiteratur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nChristof Henning: Latium. Das Land um Rom. Mit Spaziergängen in der Ewigen Stadt (= Dumont-Kunst-Reiseführer). 3. Auflage, DuMont, Köln 2006, ISBN 3-7701-6031-2.\nAnton Henze, Kunibert Bering, Gerhard Wiedmann: Kunstführer Rom. 5. Auflage, Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-15-010402-5.\nWolfgang Kuhoff: Cassino (Italien). Cassino und Kloster Montecassino. In: Antike Welt, Band 34, 2003, S. 648 f.\nRobert Schomacker: Die jüdische Vergangenheit Cassinos. Hamburg 2011, ISBN 978-3-8423-6056-3.\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCommons: Cassino – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nInternetpräsenz der Stadt Cassino (italienisch)\nLa Ciociaria (italienisch)\nMuseum Historiale (deutsch)\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ Statistiche demografiche ISTAT. Monatliche Bevölkerungsstatistiken des Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Stand 31. Dezember 2019.\n↑ Gaetano de Angelis-Curtis: 23 maggio 1863: da San Germano a Cassino. (Memento des Originals vom 6. Januar 2016 im Internet Archive) Info: Der Archivlink wurde automatisch eingesetzt und noch nicht geprüft. Bitte prüfe Original- und Archivlink gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis.@1@2Vorlage:Webachiv/IABot/www.studicassinati.it studicassinati.it, abgerufen am 6. Januar 2016.\n↑ Italienischer Zivilschutz\n↑ Maria Vittoria Albossi: Itinerari Ciociari . Arti Grafiche Tofani, Frosinone 1998, S. 289.\n↑ Gerhard Radke: Casinum. In: Der Kleine Pauly (KlP). Band 1, Stuttgart 1964, Sp. 1066.\n↑ Titus Livius, Ab urbe condita XXII 13, 5f. und XXIII 17, 7.\n↑ Wilhelm Tomaschek: Casinum. In: Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Band III,2, Stuttgart 1899, Sp. 1651 f.\n↑ Maria Vittoria Albossi: Itinerari Ciociari . Arti Grafiche Tofani, Frosinone 1998, S. 290.\n↑ Museum of the Polish II Corps / Information Center on Monte Cassino – A short history. Abgerufen am 1. Februar 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Infos der Gemeinde Cassino: Schede sintetiche degli istituti scolastici\n↑ Internetseite des Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge. Arbeit des Volksbundes und Beschreibung der Kriegsgräberstätte in Cassino. Zugriff am 15. September 2014.\n↑ Vgl. Bericht der deutsch-italienischen Handelskammer (AHK) von 2010 zu Mittelitalien und Emilie-Romagna unter PDF-download (Memento des Originals vom 28. April 2011 im Internet Archive) Info: Der Archivlink wurde automatisch eingesetzt und noch nicht geprüft. Bitte prüfe Original- und Archivlink gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis.@1@2Vorlage:Webachiv/IABot/www.ahk-italien.it\n↑ Information des Innenministeriums\n↑ Comune di Cassino – Città gemellate, abgerufen am 14. Juni 2018\nGemeinden in der Provinz Frosinone in der Region Latium\nAcquafondata | Acuto | Alatri | Alvito | Amaseno | Anagni | Aquino | Arce | Arnara | Arpino | Atina | Ausonia | Belmonte Castello | Boville Ernica | Broccostella | Campoli Appennino | Casalattico | Casalvieri | Cassino | Castelliri | Castelnuovo Parano | Castro dei Volsci | Castrocielo | Ceccano | Ceprano | Cervaro | Colfelice | Colle San Magno | Collepardo | Coreno Ausonio | Esperia | Falvaterra | Ferentino | Filettino | Fiuggi | Fontana Liri | Fontechiari | Frosinone | Fumone | Gallinaro | Giuliano di Roma | Guarcino | Isola del Liri | Monte San Giovanni Campano | Morolo | Paliano | Pastena | Patrica | Pescosolido | Picinisco | Pico | Piedimonte San Germano | Piglio | Pignataro Interamna | Pofi | Pontecorvo | Posta Fibreno | Ripi | Rocca d’Arce | Roccasecca | San Biagio Saracinisco | San Donato Val di Comino | San Giorgio a Liri | San Giovanni Incarico | San Vittore del Lazio | Sant’Ambrogio sul Garigliano | Sant’Andrea del Garigliano | Sant’Apollinare | Sant’Elia Fiumerapido | Santopadre | Serrone | Settefrati | Sgurgola | Sora | Strangolagalli | Supino | Terelle | Torre Cajetani | Torrice | Trevi nel Lazio | Trivigliano | Vallecorsa | Vallemaio | Vallerotonda | Veroli | Vicalvi | Vico nel Lazio | Villa Latina | Villa Santa Lucia | Villa Santo Stefano | Viticuso\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassino_(Latium)&oldid=215594455“\nKategorien:\nGemeinde im Latium\nCassino (Latium)\nOrt im Latium\nVersteckte Kategorien:\nWikipedia:Defekte Weblinks/Ungeprüfte Archivlinks 2019-03\nWikipedia:Defekte Weblinks/Ungeprüfte Archivlinks 2018-04\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nالعربية\nتۆرکجه\nBikol Central\nБългарски\nBrezhoneg\nCatalà\nCebuano\nDansk\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFrançais\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nInterlingua\nItaliano\n日本語\nქართული\nҚазақша\n한국어\nLatina\nLigure\nLombard\nLietuvių\nBahasa Melayu\nNapulitano\nNederlands\nNorsk nynorsk\nNorsk bokmål\nPolski\nPiemontèis\nPortuguês\nRumantsch\nRomână\nTarandíne\nРусский\nSicilianu\nScots\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nShqip\nСрпски / srpski\nSvenska\nKiswahili\nTagalog\nTürkçe\nТатарча/tatarça\nУкраїнська\nOʻzbekcha/ўзбекча\nVèneto\nTiếng Việt\nVolapük\nWinaray\n吴语\n中文\nBân-lâm-gú\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 15. 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{"content":"John Pombe Joseph Magufuli (* 29. Oktober 1959 in Chato im damaligen Tanganjika; † 17. März 2021 in Daressalam) war ein tansanischer Politiker der Chama Cha Mapinduzi. 2015 wurde er zum Präsidenten von Tansania gewählt und 2020 gewann er die Wahlen erneut. Sein Spitzname war Tinga (Traktor).\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Leben\n1.1 Hintergrund und Ausbildung\n1.2 Politischer Werdegang\n1.3 Tod und Bestattung\n2 Präsidentschaft\n2.1 Positionen und Amtsführung\n2.1.1 Bekämpfung von Korruption und Verschwendung\n2.1.2 Bildung\n2.1.3 Empfängnisverhütung\n2.1.4 Umgang mit Kritikern\n2.1.5 Wirtschaft\n2.1.6 Genverändertes Saatgut\n2.1.7 Bodenschätze\n2.1.8 Versorgung der Bevölkerung\n2.1.9 COVID-19\n2.1.10 Verkehrsprojekte\n2.2 Rückblicke\n3 Siehe auch\n4 Weblinks\n5 Einzelnachweise\nLeben[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nHintergrund und Ausbildung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMagufuli stammt aus einer Familie einfacher Bauern und wurde im Chato Distrikt am Rand des Viktoriasees geboren. In seinen Wahlkampagnen nahm er Bezug auf seine Herkunft und Kindheit, in der der das Vieh hüten, Milch und Fisch verkaufen musste. Die Wohlfahrt der einfachen Menschen zu vermehren, war sein erklärtes Ziel.[1]\nNach seiner Schulzeit besuchte Magufuli ein College für Pädagogik, wo er 1982 einen Abschluss in Erziehungswissenschaft mit den Schwerpunkten Chemie und Mathematik erwarb. In den Jahren 1982 und 1983 war er Lehrer für Chemie und Mathematik an einer Sekundarschule (secondary school). Seinen Militärdienst leistete er von 1983 bis 1984 ab. Zwischen 1985 und 1988 studierte er an der Universität von Daressalam und erwarb den Bachelor in Erziehungswissenschaft für Chemie und Mathematik. Zwischen 1989 und 1995 arbeitete er als Industriechemiker. In diese Zeit fielen auch weiterführende Studien an den Universitäten von Daressalam und Salford (England), die er 1994 mit einem Master of Science in Chemie abschloss. Während seiner Zeit als Minister promovierte er zwischen 2006 und 2009 an der Universität von Daressalam, ebenfalls in Chemie.\nMagufuli war römisch-katholisch.[2] Er war mit der Grundschullehrerin Janeth Magufuli verheiratet und hinterlässt sieben Kinder.[3]\nPolitischer Werdegang[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMagufuli war formell seit 1977 Mitglied der ursprünglich sozialistischen, später eher sozialdemokratischen \"Partei der Revolution\" Tansanias Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), war aber kein Mitglied des inneren Zirkels.[4]\nAb November 1995 war er Abgeordneter in der Nationalversammlung von Tansania. Unter der Präsidentschaft von Benjamin Mkapa war Magufuli von 1995 bis 2000 Stellvertretender Arbeitsminister und unterJakaya Kikwete von 2000 bis 2005 Arbeitsminister in Tansania. Vom 6. Januar 2006 bis 13. Februar 2008 war Magufuli Minister für ländliche Entwicklung und Besiedlung. Vom 13. Februar 2008 bis 28. November 2010 hatte er das Ministeramt für Landwirtschaft und Fischerei inne. Anschließend war er bis 2015 erneut Arbeitsminister. In diesem Amt erhielt er den Spitznamen tinga[5] oder tingatinga, deutsch etwa „Traktor“ oder „Bulldozer“,[6] weil er Straßenbauprojekte im ganzen Land energisch vorantrieb.[7]\nAm 25. Oktober 2015 siegte Magufuli bei der Präsidentenwahl mit rund 58 Prozent der Stimmen gegen den Politiker Edward Lowassa. Der Sieg war umstritten, die Wahl wurde aber von den Beobachtern der EU und Afrikanischen Union bestätigt.[8][9][10] Am 5. November 2015 wurde Magufuli als fünfter Präsident in der Geschichte Tansanias vereidigt.[11]\nBei den Wahlen für die zweite Amtsperiode 2020 erhielt er knapp 85 Prozent der Stimmen.\nTod und Bestattung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAm 17. März 2021 gab Vizepräsidentin Samia Suluhu Hassan den Tod Magufulis bekannt und erklärte, dass dieser an Herzproblemen verstorben sei. Er sei am 6. März ins Jakaya-Kikwete-Herzinstitut eingewiesen worden und am 17. März im staatlichen Mzena-Krankenhaus in Daressalam gestorben.[12][13] Es wurde eine 14-tägige Staatstrauer ausgerufen.\nZuvor war am 10. März 2021 berichtet worden, dass ein hochrangiges Mitglied einer afrikanischen Regierung in einem Krankenhaus in Nairobi wegen einer COVID-19-Erkrankung beatmet werde.[14] Magufuli war zu dem Zeitpunkt zwei Wochen nicht mehr in der Öffentlichkeit aufgetreten, und es gab Vermutungen, dass er der Erkrankte sei.[15] Es wurde spekuliert, dass Magufuli nicht an Herzversagen, sondern an COVID-19 verstorben sei.[16] Tansanias Ministerpräsident Kassim Majaliwa wies Spekulationen über eine COVID-19-Erkrankung zurück.[17] Im Übrigen gibt es Vermutungen, dass auch das offizielle Todesdatum nicht korrekt sei. Manche Quellen nennen dafür bereits den 11. März 2021.[18]\nBei der Trauerfeier für Magufuli in Daressalam kamen bei einer Massenpanik 45 Menschen ums Leben, nachdem eine mit Zuschauern besetzte Mauer eingestürzt war.[19]\nPräsidentschaft[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nPositionen und Amtsführung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nBekämpfung von Korruption und Verschwendung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMagufuli begann entsprechend seinem Wahlprogramm den Kampf gegen Korruption, Vetternwirtschaft und Verschwendung von Steuergeldern durch die Eliten. So wurde im Dezember 2015 die gesamte Leitung der tansanischen Hafenbehörde wegen Korruption und Misswirtschaft entlassen. Sechs leitende Beamte der Finanzbehörden wurden entlassen, darunter Commissioner General Rashid Bade. Edward Hoseah, der Leiter des Antikorruptionsbüros, wurde ebenso entlassen.\nDie Zahl der Kabinettsmitglieder wurde von 30 auf 19 reduziert, unnötige Auslandsreisen verboten, ebenso Flüge erster Klasse.[20] Allein die Einsparungen bei Flugkosten betrugen im ersten Jahr 430 Millionen US-Dollar.[21] Er selbst ging mit gutem Beispiel voran und fuhr mit dem Auto zum ersten Staatsbesuch in Ruanda.\nEin Ombudsmann für Beschwerden in Steuerangelegenheiten wurde eingeführt.\nZum Beginn der Amtszeit war eine seiner ersten Handlungen, die Feierlichkeiten zum Unabhängigkeitstag abzusagen, da die Beträge besser zur Bekämpfung der Cholera und zur Unterstützung der Krankenhäuser eingesetzt werden könnten. Steuersünder erhielten eine Woche lang Amnestie im Falle der Selbstanzeige.[22] Statt zu feiern, organisierte er eine Straßenreinigung, an der er sich selbst beteiligte.[23] Er reduzierte sein eigenes Gehalt auf 4000 Dollar, das niedrigste Gehalt aller Regierungschefs in Afrika, und setzte Obergrenzen für Gehälter fest.[24]\nEin Hauptziel war die Kontrolle der Arbeitsleistung der Beamten, vor allem die Eliminierung von \"Phantombeamten\" und Beamten ohne Qualifikation.[25][26]\nDie Antikorruptionsmaßnahmen trafen auch auf Kritik, da nun viele Geschäfte aufgrund von Schwarzgeld oder Steuervermeidung nicht mehr möglich waren oder ins Ausland verlagert wurden. Dadurch ging die Wirtschaftsleistung des Landes leicht zurück.[26]\nBildung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n2015 führte er Schulgeldfreiheit wieder ein. Schulgebühren für Grundschulen und Sekundarschulen wurden abgeschafft. Die Schulbesuchsrate in Grundschulen erreichte damit fast 90 Prozent. Lehrer durften kein Geld von Eltern annehmen.\nKontroversen löste seine Unterstützung eines seit 40 Jahren bestehenden Gesetzes aus,[21] dass schwangere Schülerinnen nicht weiter die Schule besuchen, sondern ihre Kinder erziehen sollten, da ihm Unterricht und Erziehung nicht vereinbar schien:\nWenn wir das weiter erlauben, werden wir eine ganze Klasse von stillenden Müttern haben.[27]\nDie Weltbank strich daraufhin einen Kredit, der zum Ausbau von Schulen vorgesehen war. Nachdem auch der Gesandte der Europäischen Union zurückgerufen worden war, lobte Magufuli China, das keine Bedingungen bei der Hilfe stelle.[6]\nZur \"Förderung der Disziplin\" weitete er die bestehende Anwendung von körperlicher Züchtigung an Schulen aus.[28]\nEmpfängnisverhütung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIm September 2018 sprach sich Magufuli in einer Rede gegen Empfängnisverhütung aus. Er behauptete, dass Menschen, die verhüten, zu faul seien, eine große Familie zu ernähren. Er empfahl, Verhütungsratgebern nicht zuzuhören, und meinte, dass solche Ratschläge zum Teil von Ausländern mit bösen Beweggründen stammten.[29][30] Diese Erklärung wurde von mehreren Seiten kritisiert, unter anderem von Amnesty International.[31]\nUmgang mit Kritikern[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMagufuli ging rigoros gegen Kritiker vor. Er erließ restriktive Mediengesetze und ließ vier Zeitungen vorübergehend schließen. Blogger mussten seither hohe Lizenzgebühren zahlen, um Texte verfassen zu dürfen.[6]\nMagufuli ging als Präsident verstärkt gegen Oppositionelle vor. Kampagnen außerhalb des Wahlkampfes wurden ihnen verboten. Im Juni 2019 wurde der Sitz von Oppositionsführer Tundu Lissu (CHADEMA) in der Nationalversammlung von der Regierung für vakant erklärt. Lissu war 2017 angeschossen worden und musste fortan ärztlich behandelt werden.[32][33][34]\nWirtschaft[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Inflation des Tansania-Schilling wurde reduziert, die Staatsverschuldung gesenkt, Steuereinnahmen stiegen, Produktion und Exporte stiegen, Tansania wurde die zweitgrößte Volkswirtschaft in Ostafrika. Mit 7 Prozent Wachstum 2019 war Tansania Nummer 2 in Afrika. Tansania stieg in die Gruppe der Länder mit mittlerem Einkommen auf ($1,080 BSP pro Kopf), auf Position 2 in Ostafrika hinter Kenia.[35][36] Während der COVID-19-Pandemie kam es zu Massenentlassungen; die Wirtschaftsleistung sank und Teile der Bevölkerung verarmten.[37][38]\nGenverändertes Saatgut[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMagufuli beendete die Versuche mit genverändertem Saatgut und ließ die Anbauflächen zerstören.[39]\nBodenschätze[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n2017 klagte er nach Überprüfung von 250 Containern mit Gold den Schürfkonzern Acacia Mining (Berrick Gold) wegen um den Faktor 10 unterdeklarierter Fördermengen der Steuerhinterziehung an und forderte Steuernachzahlung für die 17-jährige Betriebszeit in Höhe von 190 Milliarden Dollar.[21] Die Untersuchung enthüllte, dass Acacia Schwefel, Eisen, Iridium, Titan und Zink nicht deklarierte und dass statt 1,1 Tonnen Gold pro Container bis zu 15 Tonnen befördert wurden. Die Regierung verbot daraufhin den Export von Gold und Kupfer.[40][21] Acacia stritt alle Vorwürfe ab.[41] Berrick Gold stimmte im Oktober 2019 einer Zahlung von 300 Millionen Dollar zu. Die Regierung bekam außerdem 16 Prozent der Anteile der neu benannten Firma, Twiga.[42][43] Kritiker warfen Magufuli vor, dass er mit diesen Maßnahmen Investoren abschrecke.[44] Das Volumen der Direktinvestitionen halbierte sich von zwei auf eine Milliarde Dollar.\nMagufuli entzog 2018 Barrick Gold und Glencore die Lizenz für den Abbau und die Verwertung der Nickelvorräte Tansanias. Daneben wurden auch anderen Firmen für den Abbau von Gold, Silber, Kupfer und Seltenen Erden Lizenzen entzogen. Tansania ist der viertgrößte Goldproduzent in Afrika. Magufuli setzte eine Kommission zur strengeren Kontrolle der Bodenschätze ein. Ziel der Neuverwaltung und fiskalischen Neuregelung des Abbaus von Bodenschätzen war, dem Staat einen höheren Anteil an den Einnahmen zu sichern.[45] Der Nickelabbau sollte durch das Joint Venture Kabanga Nickel organisiert werden. 50 Prozent der Einkünfte sollten Tansania zugutekommen. Außerdem sollte Nickel auch im Land weiterverarbeitet werden.[46]\nVersorgung der Bevölkerung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Energieversorgung der Haushalte mit Strom und frischem Wasser wurde verbessert. Die Zahl der Krankenhäuser wurde um etwa 1000 erhöht.[47] 2019/20 hatten 78,4 Prozent der Bevölkerung Zugang zu Elektrizität (2016/17 67,5 Prozent).\nCOVID-19[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIm Rahmen der COVID-19-Pandemie in Tansania zweifelte Magufuli die Ergebnisse der Tests des staatlichen Gesundheitslabors an und begründete dies unter anderem damit, dass er Proben von nichtmenschlichen Objekten vorgelegt habe, die alle positiv getestet worden seien. Der Leiter des Gesundheitslabors wurde daraufhin am 4. Mai 2020 entlassen, die öffentliche Bekanntgabe von Zahlen wurde beendet.[48][49]\nEr machte unter anderem den Vorschlag, gegen das Virus zu beten. Zudem erklärte er, eine Art Tee aus Madagaskar als vermeintliches Heilmittel bestellen zu wollen.[50] Für die Neue Zürcher Zeitung war er „Afrikas bekanntester Corona-Skeptiker“,[51] auch die deutsche Tagesschau bezeichnete ihn nach seinem Tod als einen „der bekanntesten Corona-Leugner Afrikas“.[19] Nach dem 7. Mai 2020 meldete Tansania keine neuen Erkrankungen mehr an die Weltgesundheitsorganisation, am 8. Juni 2020 erklärte Magufuli, dass Tansania „Coronavirus-frei“ sei.[52] Später änderte er seine Haltung und führte Hygieneregeln ein, etwa Abstandsregeln.[53]\nVerkehrsprojekte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Regierung von John Magufuli trieb verschiedene Projekte im Bereich der Verkehrs-Infrastruktur voran, unter anderem den Bau eines Hafens in Bagamoyo, ein Projekt für einen neuen internationalen Flughafen in Dodoma, und Eisenbahnprojekte.[54] Darüber hinaus forcierte Magufuli den Ausbau des Schnellbussystems.[55] Er führte das von seinem Vorgänger Jakaya Kikwete initiierte Projekt für eine Modernisierung der tansanischen Eisenbahnen durch den Aufbau von Normalspur-Strecken in Ost- und Zentralafrika fort. Er hatte dieses nach seinem Amtsantritt zunächst unterbrochen, da es im Ausschreibungsverfahren zu Verstößen bei einem chinesischen Auftragnehmer gekommen sei.[56][57] Im Januar 2021 wurde gemeldet, dass Magufuli chinesische Investitionen in der Höhe von 1,32 Milliarden US-Dollar ausgehandelt habe, um einen 341 km langen Abschnitt zwischen Mwanza und Isaka zu finanzieren.[58]\nRückblicke[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIn seinem Kommentar bei der Deutschen Welle zum Tode Magufulis bezeichnete ihn Mohammed Khelef als „verhasst und verehrt“. Einerseits sei Magufuli „Probleme im Staatsapparat“ energisch angegangen, andererseits habe er autokratisch regiert und Kritiker eingeschüchtert. Unter Magufuli habe das Amt des Präsidenten an eine Monarchie erinnert.[59]\nNach Ruandas The New Times verglichen ihn Gegner mit Idi Amin.[60]\nSiehe auch[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nKabinett Magufuli I\nKabinett Magufuli II\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCommons: John Magufuli – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nProfil von John Magufuli auf der offiziellen Website des Präsidenten von Tansania (englisch)\nderstandard.at: Tansania: John Pombe Magufuli gewann Präsidentenwahl\nBBC: Tanzania poll: John Magufuli of CCM defeats Edward Lowassa (englisch)\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ John Magufuli - Tanzania's 'Bulldozer' president in profile . In: BBC News . 30. Oktober 2019 (bbc.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Basillioh Mutahi: Tanzania President John Magufuli: The man who declared victory over coronavirus (Englisch) In: BBC News . 2. November 2020. Abgerufen am 14. März 2021.\n↑ https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/the-identity-of-magufuli-s-seven-children--3337340\n↑ John Magufuli - Tanzania's 'Bulldozer' president in profile . In: BBC News . 30. Oktober 2019 (bbc.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Graft, development top of Tanzania's John Magufuli's agenda. Abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ a b c Isabel Pfaff: Der Kompromisslose. Süddeutsche Zeitung vom 30. November 2018, S. 10.\n↑ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34669468\n↑ Andrea Schmidt: Kommentar: Umstrittener Wahlsieg Kommentar vom 29. Oktober 2015 auf der Webseite dw.com. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Dominic Johnson: Eine Wahl, zwei Wahlsieger. taz.de vom 29. Oktober 2015, abgerufen am 17. April 2018.\n↑ Tanzania poll: John Magufuli of CCM defeats Edward Lowassa . In: BBC News . 29. Oktober 2015 (bbc.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Magufuli sworn in as Tanzania’s 5th president. thecitizen.co.tz vom 5. November 2015 (englisch), abgerufen am 7. November 2015.\n↑ Oliver Mathenge: Tanzania President John Magufuli is dead. In: The Star. 17. März 2021, abgerufen am 17. März 2021 (englisch).\n↑ John Magufuli: Tanzania's president dies aged 61 after Covid rumours. In: BBC News. 17. März 2021, abgerufen am 19. März 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Thomson Reuters Foundation: Where's Magufuli? Tanzanian leader's absence fuels health concern. Abgerufen am 17. März 2021.\n↑ Heiner Hoffmann, DER SPIEGEL: Coronakrise in Ostafrika: Tansanias oberster Querdenker. Abgerufen am 17. März 2021.\n↑ Tansanias «Bulldozer» ist tot, Samuel Burri auf SRF, 18. März 2021, abgerufen am 19. März 2021.\n↑ ORF at/Agenturen red: Gebete gegen CoV: Tansanias Präsident tot. 18. März 2021, abgerufen am 19. März 2021.\n↑ Tracking Magufuli's last moments, reports say he flew to Kenya in www.africanews.com vom 19. März 2021, abgerufen am 21. Juli 2021\n↑ a b 45 Tote bei Trauerfeiern für Magufuli. In: tagesschau.de. 31. März 2021, abgerufen am 5. April 2021.\n↑ Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com): Tanzania's Magufuli leads fight against corruption | DW | 12.05.2016. Abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (britisches Englisch).\n↑ a b c d Five things Tanzania's President 'Bulldozer' Magufuli has banned . In: BBC News . 5. März 2019 (bbc.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Tansanias Präsident wird Internet-Star #WhatWouldMagufuliDo: #WhatWouldMagufuliDo - ein Staatschef auf Sparkurs | tagesschau.de. 3. Dezember 2016, abgerufen am 19. März 2021.\n↑ Mhango, Nkwazi Nkuzi: Africaís Best and Worst Presidents: How Neocolonialism and Imperialism Maintained Venal Rules in Africa . Langaa RPCIG, 2016, ISBN 978-9956-764-72-3 (com.ph [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Fumbuka Ng’wanakilala: Tanzanian president discloses salary, one of lowest among African leaders . In: Reuters . 4. Oktober 2017 (reuters.com [abgerufen am 12. April 2021]).\n↑ Robert I. Rotberg: The Corruption Cure: How Citizens and Leaders Can Combat Graft . Princeton University Press, 2019, ISBN 978-0-691-19157-7 (com.ph [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ a b Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com): Schädigt Tansanias Präsident John Magufuli mit seinem Kampf gegen Korruption die Wirtschaft? | DW | 08.12.2017. Abgerufen am 16. April 2021.\n↑ Augustine Oduor: Magufuli and Education: He banned pregnant girls from schools, urged caning. Abgerufen am 11. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/education/article/2001406761/magufuli-urged-caning-and-banned-pregnant-girls-from-schools\n↑ Tanzania's president says women using birth control are too 'lazy' to feed a family . Independent. Abgerufen am 29. September 2018.\n↑ 'Don't use birth control,' Tanzania's President tells women in the country . CNN. Abgerufen am 29. September 2018.\n↑ Amnesty International condemns Tanzania's 'attack' on family planning . CNN. Abgerufen am 29. September 2018.\n↑ Tanzania: opposition leader Tundu Lissu stripped of parliamentary post. africanews.com vom 29. Juni 2019 (englisch), abgerufen am 29. Juni 2019.\n↑ CDU-Abgeordnete Gisela Manderla hilft Tundu Lissu aus Tansania. bundestag.de vom 30. März 2020, abgerufen am 14. Mai 2020.\n↑ Freedom in the World 2020: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties . Rowman & Littlefield, 2021, ISBN 978-1-5381-5181-5 (com.ph [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Dr J. P. J. Magufuli, the President of Tanzania who came, worked and went. 25. März 2021, abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ World Bank categorizes Tanzania as middle income country: official. Abgerufen am 10. April 2021.\n↑ Overview. Abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ siehe auch en:COVID-19 pandemic in Tanzania\n↑ Why did Tanzania just pull the plug on its GMO crop trials? 28. November 2018, abgerufen am 16. April 2021 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Tanzania's firebrand leader takes on its largest gold miner . In: The Economist . 15. Juni 2017.\n↑ Tanzania's firebrand leader takes on its largest gold miner . In: The Economist . 15. Juni 2017.\n↑ John Magufuli - Tanzania's 'Bulldozer' president in profile . In: BBC News . 30. Oktober 2019 (bbc.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Tanzania’s firebrand leader takes on its largest gold miner . In: The Economist . 15. Juni 2017, ISSN 0013-0613 (economist.com [abgerufen am 11. April 2021]).\n↑ Tanzania’s mining dispute ends – but at what cost? In: The Mail & Guardian. 23. Oktober 2019, abgerufen am 11. April 2021 (en-ZA).\n↑ Tanzania cancels license of Barrick, Glencore nickel project. 14. Mai 2018, abgerufen am 10. April 2021.\n↑ Tanzania Kabanga Nickel Project To Start Operations Soon. In: TanzaniaInvest. 26. Januar 2021, abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Dr J. P. J. Magufuli, the President of Tanzania who came, worked and went. 25. März 2021, abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Tanzanian president blames lab after goat, papaya ‘test positive’ for coronavirus. Abgerufen am 16. April 2021 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Probleme bei Covid-19-Tests: Corona bei einer Papaya? Abgerufen am 16. April 2021.\n↑ Corona bei einer Papaya? . ZDF. Abgerufen am 9. Mai 2020.\n↑ Samuel Misteli: Ist Afrikas bekanntester Corona-Skeptiker selber an Covid-19 erkrankt? Artikel vom 14. März 2021 auf nzz.ch. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ John Magufuli declares Tanzania free of Covid-19\n↑ Mwangi Maina: Magufuli’s change of tune after Covid-19 strikes top government officials. Abgerufen am 11. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Anita Anyango: Top ongoing mega projects in Tanzania (Englisch) In: Construction Review Online . 4. Dezember 2020. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Time is Money: Transforming Dar es Salaam’s Road Transport to Reduce Dense Traffic. Abgerufen am 11. April 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Michael Oduor: Tanzania struggles to get bonds to finance standard gauge railway (Englisch) In: Africanews . 24. Mai 2017. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Hilda Mhagama: Tanzania: JPM Flags Off Standard Gauge Railway Project (Englisch) In: All Africa . 13. April 2017. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Dorothy Ndalu: Magufuli secures $1.32b China support for Tanzania SGR (Englisch) In: The East African . 11. Januar 2021. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Mohammed Khelef: Meinung: John Magufuli - verhasst und verehrt . In: Deutsche Welle . 18. März 2021. Abgerufen am 18. März 2021.\n↑ Dr J. P. J. Magufuli, the President of Tanzania who came, worked and went. 25. März 2021, abgerufen am 10. April 2021 (englisch).\nPräsidenten Tansanias\nJulius Nyerere | Ali Hassan Mwinyi | Benjamin William Mkapa | Jakaya Kikwete | John Magufuli | Samia Suluhu Hassan\nNormdaten (Person): GND: 1152964046 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: n2019230464 | VIAF: 5473151965376500470000 | Wikipedia-Personensuche\nPersonendaten\nNAME Magufuli, John\nALTERNATIVNAMEN Magufuli, John Pombe Joseph (vollständiger Name)\nKURZBESCHREIBUNG tansanischer Politiker\nGEBURTSDATUM 29. Oktober 1959\nGEBURTSORT Chato District, Kagera, Tanganjika\nSTERBEDATUM 17. März 2021\nSTERBEORT Daressalam\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Magufuli&oldid=214847089“\nKategorien:\nPräsident (Tansania)\nMinister (Tansania)\nPolitiker (21. Jahrhundert)\nPolitiker (20. 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Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:bb24f1d2-01af-44ef-a2d6-6246a2d340a0>","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:14:21Z","warc-type":"conversion","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:f7b8b15f-dc43-4e1c-a2fe-8dc5e194bbca>","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"25316","warc-block-digest":"sha1:VRK7XFJ4KJRA76L4YFKVAUHHJHM37YT6","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Magufuli","warc-identified-content-language":"deu,eng"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.78722054},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.99275875},{"label":"de","prob":0.93805766},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99022055},{"label":"de","prob":0.80801725},{"label":"de","prob":0.997595},{"label":"de","prob":0.99999416},{"label":"de","prob":0.996627},{"label":"de","prob":0.9844581},{"label":"de","prob":0.9364292},{"label":"de","prob":0.9094945},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982362},{"label":"de","prob":0.91485846},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8372548},{"label":"de","prob":0.9646998},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9822632},null,{"label":"de","prob":1.0000397},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98604244},{"label":"de","prob":0.96269655},{"label":"de","prob":0.9906645},{"label":"de","prob":0.9970848},{"label":"de","prob":0.99012476},{"label":"de","prob":0.98947024},{"label":"de","prob":0.96351075},{"label":"de","prob":0.9866512},{"label":"de","prob":0.98753273},{"label":"de","prob":0.9989004},{"label":"de","prob":0.99700916},{"label":"de","prob":0.9937603},{"label":"de","prob":0.9974247},{"label":"de","prob":0.99636525},{"label":"de","prob":0.9953201},{"label":"de","prob":0.99847966},{"label":"de","prob":0.99256814},{"label":"de","prob":0.98845595},{"label":"de","prob":0.99291074},{"label":"de","prob":0.99830484},{"label":"de","prob":0.9989462},{"label":"de","prob":0.99816567},{"label":"de","prob":0.9860423},{"label":"de","prob":0.99896604},{"label":"de","prob":0.98322207},{"label":"de","prob":0.9949491},{"label":"de","prob":0.9971645},{"label":"de","prob":0.996028},{"label":"de","prob":0.99618864},{"label":"de","prob":0.9919874},{"label":"de","prob":0.983659},{"label":"de","prob":0.99709994},{"label":"de","prob":0.9953496},{"label":"de","prob":0.9911245},{"label":"de","prob":0.99560666},{"label":"de","prob":0.98812133},{"label":"de","prob":0.99066055},{"label":"de","prob":0.9678253},{"label":"de","prob":0.99533534},{"label":"de","prob":0.9649789},{"label":"de","prob":0.99199885},{"label":"de","prob":0.9940859},{"label":"de","prob":0.9776039},{"label":"de","prob":0.9971608},{"label":"de","prob":0.9272357},{"label":"de","prob":0.99237996},{"label":"de","prob":0.99371856},{"label":"de","prob":0.9887066},{"label":"de","prob":0.99369097},{"label":"de","prob":0.95521265},{"label":"de","prob":0.9911666},{"label":"de","prob":0.946633},{"label":"de","prob":0.99697727},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97053707},{"label":"de","prob":0.93576413},{"label":"de","prob":0.9996272},{"label":"de","prob":0.91566324},{"label":"de","prob":0.8257997},{"label":"de","prob":0.98497194},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.88372606},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8376218},{"label":"de","prob":0.89116925},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99767363},{"label":"de","prob":0.987782},{"label":"de","prob":0.8523361},{"label":"de","prob":0.8472015},{"label":"de","prob":0.99726015},{"label":"de","prob":0.9944595},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.96216583},{"label":"de","prob":0.9996029},{"label":"de","prob":0.99903476},{"label":"de","prob":0.9080137},{"label":"de","prob":0.99837327},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99352676},null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98186636},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9388403},{"label":"de","prob":0.99611604},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.88434744},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9979122},{"label":"de","prob":0.99251336},null,null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8774626},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97397125},{"label":"de","prob":0.88434744},{"label":"de","prob":0.8042752},{"label":"de","prob":0.97911245},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982945},{"label":"de","prob":0.998535},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9881443},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.96347207},{"label":"de","prob":0.96970195},{"label":"de","prob":0.97490096},{"label":"de","prob":0.99810547},{"label":"de","prob":0.88434744},{"label":"de","prob":0.9978714},null,null,null,{"label":"en","prob":0.83701307},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99860424},{"label":"de","prob":0.9477396},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9990384},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},{"label":"de","prob":0.9985592},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9977141},{"label":"de","prob":0.9979943},{"label":"de","prob":0.9581493},null,{"label":"nl","prob":0.8518201},null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de",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{"content":"Der Ostpark ist eine öffentliche Parkanlage im äußersten Norden des Münchner Stadtteils Neuperlach, die seit den 1960er Jahren geplant und im Jahr 1973 eröffnet wurde.\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Geschichte\n2 Charakterisierung des Parks\n3 Siehe auch\n4 Weblinks\n5 Einzelnachweise\nGeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLuftaufnahme des Ostparks (oben Mitte der Haupteingang)\nBereits 1918 wurde im Münchner Magistrat die Einrichtung eines Parks für die östlichen Stadtteile diskutiert.[1] Realistisch wurden die Vorstellungen aber erst, als 1962 die Großsiedlung „Entlastungsstadt“ Neuperlach für 80.000 Einwohner beschlossen wurde. Der Landschaftsarchitekturprofessor Ludwig Roemer sah im Zuge der Planungen einen Park vor, in den auch die für die neue Siedlung geplanten Freizeiteinrichtungen integriert werden sollten. Mit den konkreter werdenden Plänen für die Großsiedlung wurden auch die Parkpläne weiter ausgearbeitet und die Stadtgartendirektion beschloss, den Park schrittweise anzulegen.\n1962 wurde der Bau des Ostparks formal beschlossen. 1965 erarbeitete Roemer einen Vorentwurf für den Park. Am 12. November 1969 fiel der Beschluss über den ersten Bauabschnitt im Osten des Geländes von 15,75 Hektar. 1973 wurden die entscheidenden Arbeiten des ersten Bauabschnittes durchgeführt. Bereits am 18. Juni 1975 beschloss der Stadtrat den zweiten Bauabschnitt, ehe am 22. Juli 1975 der erste Bauabschnitt der Öffentlichkeit übergeben wurde. Am 26. Juni 1979 folgte schließlich der zweite Bauabschnitt im Westen mit dem See, einer Gaststätte und Sportanlagen. Die gesamte Fläche des Parks von rund 56 Hektar wurde am 27. Mai 1982 offiziell eröffnet. Vom 18. bis zum 27. Juli 2003 fand ein großes Festival zum 30. Jubiläum des Parks statt.\nCharakterisierung des Parks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nSee im Ostpark\nMit dem Ostpark entstand aus einer einstmals ebenen Ackerfläche ein Landschaftspark mit Liegewiesen, baumbestandenen Hügeln und Wasserflächen als beliebtes Naherholungsgebiet im Münchener Südosten.\nDie Hügel wurden aus Bauschutt und Schottern aufgeschüttet, die beim Bau von Neuperlach und der U-Bahn anfielen. Neben einem verzweigten Netz von Wegen wurde im Westen des Parks von Gartenarchitekt Josef Wurzer ein 3,5 Hektar großer buchtenreicher See mit einer großen zentralen Insel geschaffen, der über Grundwasserbrunnen gespeist wird. Die ursprünglich geplante Speisung des Sees durch den in unmittelbarer Nähe verlaufenden Hachinger Bach wurde aus gewässerschutztechnischen Gründen nicht durchgeführt. Die ca. 700 m lange Umkreisung der Seeinsel ist im Winter eine beliebte natürliche Eislaufstrecke.\nDer Park bietet Ballspiel- und Tischtennisplätze, Eisstockbahnen und eine kleine Freilichtbühne (das Theatron). Am Nordufer des Sees befindet sich der Biergarten Michaeligarten (3.000 Sitzplätze, Gaststätte mit Restaurantbetrieb, Haberl Gastronomie). In den Park eingebettet sind ein Eislaufstadion mit 400-Meter-Bahn; das bereits seit 1955 bestehende Michaelibad-Freibad grenzt direkt an den Park an, das Hallenbad des Michaelibades kam 1973 hinzu.\nDirekt südlich des Parks befindet sich das Jugend-Kulturzentrum des FestSpielHauses.\nMitte der 1970er-Jahre gab es im Ostpark auch eine kleine Sommer-Skisprungschanze mit einem K-Punkt von 15 m.[2]\nSee im Ostpark\nFußgängerbrücke über den See\nGaststätte mit Biergarten im Hintergrund\nHachinger Bach im Ostpark\nBasketballplatz im Ostpark\nSiehe auch[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nListe der Grünflächen in München\nListe der Gewässer in München\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCommons: Ostpark (München) – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nLandeshauptstadt München: Ostpark\nLandeshauptstadt München: Grüne Oasen: Der Ostpark\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ Amrei Mosbauer, Christoph Valentien: Die kommunale Grünentwicklung in München. In: Oberbayerisches Archiv, Band 115 (1991), S. 205–282, 239 f.\n↑ Skisprungschanzen-Archiv: Ostpark - München\n48.11361111111111.638055555556Koordinaten: 48° 6′ 49″ N, 11° 38′ 17″ O\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ostpark_(München)&oldid=212429864“\nKategorien:\nParkanlage in München\nBauwerk in Perlach\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nCebuano\nEnglish\nFrançais\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 27. Mai 2021 um 18:04 Uhr bearbeitet.\nAbrufstatistik · Autoren\nDer Text ist unter der Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike“ verfügbar; Informationen zu den Urhebern und zum Lizenzstatus eingebundener Mediendateien (etwa Bilder oder Videos) können im Regelfall durch Anklicken dieser abgerufen werden. Möglicherweise unterliegen die Inhalte jeweils zusätzlichen Bedingungen. Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:75269947-948b-47f5-9e1d-a28dba179098>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:4da93179-12ea-47ca-9f45-6e17e3cb39c9>","warc-identified-content-language":"deu","warc-type":"conversion","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:20:32Z","warc-block-digest":"sha1:LSKBDDGZFQWESBPK4T2ROANPFTCBB4E6","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostpark_(M%C3%BCnchen)","content-length":"5540"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.9072868},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.9998933},{"label":"de","prob":0.93805766},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8848291},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000397},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98604244},{"label":"de","prob":0.96283174},{"label":"de","prob":0.96982294},{"label":"de","prob":0.9986601},{"label":"de","prob":0.99892026},{"label":"de","prob":0.97103834},{"label":"de","prob":0.9810701},{"label":"de","prob":0.9968037},{"label":"de","prob":0.9985635},{"label":"de","prob":0.9881004},{"label":"de","prob":0.9942754},{"label":"de","prob":0.9989256},{"label":"de","prob":0.9810701},{"label":"de","prob":0.99471307},{"label":"de","prob":0.9981844},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97881067},{"label":"de","prob":0.99697727},{"label":"de","prob":0.9805197},{"label":"de","prob":0.99291956},{"label":"de","prob":0.97053707},{"label":"de","prob":0.96649057},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8746356},{"label":"de","prob":0.98497194},{"label":"de","prob":0.8880152},{"label":"de","prob":0.8719992},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9153484},{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90330833},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8391272},{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.85126376},{"label":"de","prob":0.99997973},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"Die Kleine Mistbiene oder Gemeine Keulenschwebfliege (Syritta pipiens) ist eine Fliege aus der Familie der Schwebfliegen (Syrphidae).\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Merkmale\n2 Vorkommen\n3 Lebensweise\n4 Quellen\n5 Weblinks\nMerkmale[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Fliegen erreichen eine Länge von 7 bis 9 Millimetern und haben einen sehr schlanken Körperbau. Das Gesicht steht kielförmig vor. Die Stirn des Weibchens ist silberweiß bestäubt mit schwarzem Scheitel. Die kurzen Fühler haben eine rötlich gelbe Färbung, die sich nach vorne hin verdunkelt sowie eine nackte Fühlerborste. Die Brust ist länglich, schwarz und hat seitlich eine aschgraue Bestäubung. Ein sehr markantes Erkennungsmerkmal, weshalb die Kleine Mistbiene kaum mit einer anderen Art zu verwechseln ist, sind die keulenartig verdickten Oberschenkel am hinteren Beinpaar, die an der Unterseite fein bestachelt sind. Der Hinterleib (Abdomen) hat am zweiten und dritten Segment keilförmige, schwarz durchbrochene, gelbe Querbinden. Das vierte Segment ist glänzend schwarz und hat zwei weiße Seitenpunkte am Vorderrand sowie einen gelblich gesäumten Hinterrand.\nVorkommen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Art ist auf der nördlichen Halbkugel verbreitet. Sie ist in Mitteleuropa eine der am weitesten verbreiteten Schwebfliegen. Anzutreffen sind sie an Gewässern, Feuchtbiotopen, Wiesen sowie als Kulturfolger auf Feldern in Parks und Gärten. Die Kleine Mistbiene fliegt von April bis Oktober, in Südeuropa ganzjährig.\nLebensweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDie Imagines ernähren sich von toten pflanzlichen Substanzen (Saprophage). Sie fliegen meist tief mit einem charakteristischen Flugmuster, selten über einer Höhe von 1 m und sind Blütenbesucher an verschiedenen Pflanzen. Dort halten sie sich bevorzugt auf Doldenblütlern auf. Die Begattung der Kleinen Mistbiene verläuft in einer Art Rüttelflug und dauert nur maximal fünf Sekunden. Die Larven, so genannte Rattenschwanzlarven, leben koprophag in Kompost, Pferdemist oder Kuhdung sowie in Pflanzenabfällen. Die Art ist polyvoltin, das heißt, sie produziert mehrere Generationen pro Jahr.\nQuellen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nOlaf Bastian: Schwebfliegen. Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei, Bd. 576, Westarp Wissenschaften, Magdeburg 1994, ISBN 3-89432-469-4\nJoachim und Hiroko Haupt: Fliegen und Mücken: Beobachtung, Lebensweise. Naturbuch-Verlag, Augsburg 1998, ISBN 3-89440-278-4.\nKurt Kormann: Schwebfliegen und Blasenkopffliegen Mitteleuropas Fauna Naturführer Band 1, Fauna-Verlag, Nottuln 2002, ISBN 3-935980-29-9\nSpeight, M.C.D. (200) Species accounts of European Syrphidae (Diptera) 2010. Syrph the Net, the database of European Syrphidae, vol.59, 285 pp., ISSN 1393-4546. Syrph the Net Publications, Dublin.\nvan Veen, M.P. Hoverflies of Northwest Europe KNNV Publishing 2004, ISBN 978-90-5011-199-7.\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCommons: Kleine Mistbiene – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nSyritta pipiens bei Fauna Europaea\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kleine_Mistbiene&oldid=214229439“\nKategorie:\nSchwebfliegen\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nCebuano\nEnglish\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nРусский\nSvenska\nTiếng Việt\nWinaray\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 26. Juli 2021 um 18:51 Uhr bearbeitet.\nAbrufstatistik · Autoren\nDer Text ist unter der Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike“ verfügbar; Informationen zu den Urhebern und zum Lizenzstatus eingebundener Mediendateien (etwa Bilder oder Videos) können im Regelfall durch Anklicken dieser abgerufen werden. Möglicherweise unterliegen die Inhalte jeweils zusätzlichen Bedingungen. Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:HEAUBBB4IYCLA73HQTL3PWZ6EWN3CLXQ","warc-type":"conversion","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"4467","warc-identified-content-language":"deu,eng","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:47:40Z","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syritta_pipiens","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:38a4c255-28a5-4e3f-960a-84ffa45dad8d>","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:fba4b7d2-bfb3-4dd9-adc8-78ec44d7371d>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.8041609},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.98949915},{"label":"de","prob":0.93805766},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9686191},{"label":"de","prob":0.95387006},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.96870893},{"label":"de","prob":0.99789894},{"label":"de","prob":0.97731125},{"label":"de","prob":0.99883544},{"label":"de","prob":0.9781263},{"label":"de","prob":0.9957599},{"label":"de","prob":0.9582198},{"label":"de","prob":0.82564217},{"label":"de","prob":0.94209105},null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97053707},{"label":"de","prob":0.96727395},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8613658},{"label":"de","prob":0.9129395},{"label":"de","prob":0.9331557},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8391272},{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},null,{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,null,{"label":"sv","prob":0.8383157},{"label":"vi","prob":0.99561477},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.85126376},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999736},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"Google LLC ist ein US-amerikanisches Technologieunternehmen, tätig in den Bereichen Hard- und Softwareentwicklung, mit der Rechtsform Limited Liability Company und mit Hauptsitz im kalifornischen Mountain View. Google LLC ist ein Tochterunternehmen der Holding-Gesellschaft XXVI Holdings Inc; diese gehört dem Unternehmen Alphabet Inc.[1] Bis zum 1. September 2017 trug Google LLC den Namen Google Inc.\nGoogle Inc. wurde vor allem durch die gleichnamige Suchmaschine Google bekannt. Das Unternehmen wurde am 4. September 1998 von Larry Page und Sergey Brin gegründet. Noch am selben Tag brachten sie eine Testversion des Programms auf den Markt und im selben Jahr ging die Suchmaschine offiziell ans Netz. Das Unternehmen bekundet, „die Informationen dieser Welt zu organisieren und allgemein zugänglich und nutzbar zu machen“.[2]\nDie Suchmaschine des Unternehmens erhielt weltweit etwa 73,4 % aller Desktop-Suchanfragen des Internets (Stand: Juni 2018).[3] Die Marke Google gehört seit Jahren zu den wertvollsten Marken der Welt.[4][5]\nGoogle Inc. gehört seit dem 2. Oktober 2015[6] zu Alphabet. Durch eine Umstrukturierung wurden die Google-Aktien in Alphabet-Aktien umgewandelt und das Unternehmen in mehrere Subunternehmen, welche Alphabet Inc. angehören, aufgeteilt.[7][8] Das Kerngeschäft der Online- und Internetdienste wurde unter dem Namen Google fortgeführt. Der vorige Google-Chef Larry Page wechselte zusammen mit Sergey Brin an die Spitze der neu geschaffenen Holding. Die Führung von Google übernahm Sundar Pichai.[9]\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Dienstleistungen\n1.1 Werbedienstleistungen\n1.1.1 Ads\n1.1.2 AdSense\n2 Betriebssysteme\n3 Finanzen\n3.1 Umsatz und Gewinn\n3.2 Steuerproblematik\n3.3 Steueraufkommen in Deutschland\n4 Mitarbeiter\n5 Geschichte\n5.1 Gründung\n5.2 Chronologie\n5.3 Börsenentwicklung\n5.4 Logos\n6 Patente und Gebrauchsmuster\n7 Karitatives Engagement\n8 Standorte\n9 Rechenzentren\n9.1 Nordamerika\n9.2 Südamerika\n9.3 Europa\n9.4 Asien\n9.5 Hardware\n10 Veranstaltungen\n11 Kritik\n12 Literarische und filmische Verarbeitung\n13 Literatur\n14 Weblinks\n15 Einzelnachweise\nDienstleistungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n→ Hauptartikel: Liste der Produkte der Google LLC\nGoogle bietet eine Vielzahl von größtenteils werbefinanzierten kostenlosen Dienstleistungen im World Wide Web an. Dabei handelt es sich vor allem um die Suche auf verschiedenen Datenquellen. Häufig werden neue Einzeldienste ins Angebot aufgenommen, manchmal als Resultat von Unternehmenseinkäufen. Dabei wird eine neue Dienstleistung oft mit dem Zusatz Beta versehen, um anzuzeigen, dass sie noch nicht ausgereift sei. Google wurde dafür kritisiert, dass manche Dienstleistungen den Beta-Status sehr lange behalten.[10] Zudem wurden im Laufe der Zeit zahlreiche Dienste abgeschaltet.[11]\nZu den wichtigsten Diensten zählen:\nGoogle bietet verschiedene Suchmaschinen an.\nTextdokumente im Web – Die bekannteste und meistgenutzte Dienstleistung ist die Volltextsuche von Dokumenten im World Wide Web. Neben dem im Web üblichen HTML-Format durchsucht Google auch andere Dokumenttypen wie PDF, PostScript oder das Doc-Format von Microsoft Word. Ein Faktor bei der Gewichtung der Suchergebnisse ist die Linkpopularität. Der vollständige Algorithmus wird jedoch von Google LLC geheim gehalten, um ein Kopieren der Dienstleistung einerseits und eine irreführende Optimierung kommerzieller oder anderer Seiten auf die Google-Suche andererseits zu erschweren.\nBilddateien im Web – Um nach Bilddateien zu suchen, verwendet Googles Bildersuche Wörter im Dateinamen sowie in HTML-Dokumenten, die Bilder verwenden. Es werden die Grafikformate JPEG, PNG und GIF unterstützt. Eine Suche nach Bildinhalten ist auch möglich.\nProdukte – Mit Google Shopping, ehemals Froogle, kann man nach bei Online-Händlern angebotenen Waren suchen. Insbesondere ist ein Preisvergleich möglich.\nBücher und Wissenschaftliche Werke – Google Books ist ein Suchdienst, mit dem eigene Digitalisate und Onlinebücher im Volltext durchsucht werden können. Google Scholar ist ein ähnlicher Dienst, der auf wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen spezialisiert ist.\nVideos – YouTube ist ein umfangreicher Dienst mit zahlreichen Videos.\nMusik – YouTube Music stellt Musik auf YouTube gesondert zur Verfügung, im Rahmen eines kostenpflichtigen Abonnements auch offline.\nKarten – Der Online-Atlas Google Maps beinhaltet Straßenkarten, bekannte Orte und eine Vielzahl anderer ortsbezogener Informationen. Google bietet eine Programmierschnittstelle, mit der in Websites Karten und Routenplaner integriert werden können. Google Earth ergänzt das Angebot um einen virtuellen Globus.\nNachrichten – Der Inhalt von Nachrichten-Websites wird von Google besonders häufig abgerufen. Unter Google News wird dann auf diese Artikel – gruppiert nach Themen, bestimmten Ereignissen und geordnet nach ihrer Bedeutung – verwiesen. So kann der Leser verschiedene Artikel zu einem Ereignis schnell auffinden.\nE-Mail – Gmail ist Googles E-Mail-Dienst. Man kann seine Mails im Web lesen, per POP3 oder per IMAP mit dem eigenen E-Mail-Programm abholen.\nWebseiten – Google Sites ist ein Webhoster, bei dem man als registrierter Benutzer seine eigene Webseite erstellen und veröffentlichen kann.\nSoziale Netzwerke – Orkut und Buzz standen in Konkurrenz zu anderen Gemeinschaftsportalen bzw. Online-Kontaktnetzwerken wie Facebook und Twitter. Nach dem geringen Erfolg von Buzz wurde es zugunsten des Nachfolgers Google+ eingestellt. Im Jahr 2016 stellte Google außerdem den Dienst Spaces vor. Er dient zum Teilen und Kommentieren von Bildern, Texten und Videos.\nMessaging – Google Hangouts, früher Google Talk, ist ein Messenger zum Austausch von Textnachrichten und Videotelefonie.\nÜbersetzung – Eine automatische Übersetzung zwischen einigen Sprachen wird für Webseiten angeboten.\nOffice-Suite – Mit den Anwendungen Docs, Tabellen und Präsentationen stellt Google ein Office-Paket für Chrome, Android und Apple iOS bereit. Die Applikationen arbeiten eng mit dem Online-Speicher Google Drive zusammen, können neben Dokumenten im Google Format aber auch Microsoft-Office Dateien öffnen. Diese Funktionalität macht auch das für Unternehmen entwickelte G Suite attraktiv. Neben Google Drive können hier auch andere Dienste wie Gmail kostenpflichtig mit erweiterten Funktionen genutzt werden.\nUsenet – Google besitzt mit Google Groups ein umfangreiches Archiv von Newsgroup-Artikeln, welche bis 1981 zurückreichen. In den Beiträgen der verschiedensprachigen Diskussionsforen kann nach Begriffen und Autoren gesucht werden. Die Version 2 ermöglicht außerdem das Anlegen von eigenen Diskussionsforen, allerdings unabhängig vom Usenet.\nBetriebssysteme und Browser – Google bietet die kostenlosen Betriebssysteme Chrome OS und Android sowie den Webbrowser Google Chrome an. Ab 2011 sollte zudem der Android-Ableger Google TV verbreitet werden. 2014 folgte die Einstellung von Google TV und dessen Nachfolger Android TV startete.\nUnternehmen - Für Unternehmen bietet Google die G Suite an. Damit vergibt Google E-Mail-Adressen und Speicherplatz an geschäftliche Kunden. Mit dem Produkt Google My Business können Unternehmen sich in der Google-Suche, in Google Maps und dem ehemaligen Sozialen Netzwerk Google+ präsentieren.\nWerbedienstleistungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAds[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle verkauft für beliebige Suchbegriffe das Einblenden gesponserter Links im Rahmen seines Google-Ads-Programms. Diese reine Textwerbung ist optisch speziell hervorgehoben, so dass der Benutzer sie von den eigentlichen Suchergebnissen unterscheiden kann. Auf diese Weise wird Werbung angezeigt, die inhaltlich zur Suchanfrage passt und somit den werbenden AdWords-Kunden mit der Benutzerklientel zusammenbringt, die mit höherer Wahrscheinlichkeit an seinen Produkten und Dienstleistungen interessiert ist. Der Kunde legt die maximale Vergütung pro Klick selbst fest, wobei eine höhere Vergütung eine höhere Position gegenüber konkurrierenden Anzeigen erzielen kann.\nAdSense[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nZusätzlich entstehen Gewinne durch das Google AdSense-Partnerprogramm. Dies ist eine kontextabhängige Werbung, die Webmaster auf ihren Webseiten einbinden können. Hierüber können seit Mai 2004 auch grafische Werbebanner in vier Standardgrößen platziert werden. Seit Juni 2005 können die Kunden über das „Site Targeting“ außerdem gezielt auf bestimmten Seiten werben, statische und animierte Werbebanner einsetzen und diese über die Zahl der Abrufe bezahlen. Bislang war nur eine Bezahlung pro Klick möglich.\nGoogle behält sich eine Deaktivierung eines AdSense-Kontos ohne Angabe von Gründen vor.\nGoogle hat geäußert, sich nicht auf die Werbung im Internet beschränken, sondern mittel- und langfristig am Werbemarkt insgesamt partizipieren zu wollen. Angestrebt wird, AdSense zu einem medienübergreifenden Werbenetzwerk, in das neben der Internetwerbung auch die klassischen Medien Print, Radio und Fernsehen einbezogen sind, auszubauen. Hintergrund ist die Befürchtung, dass Google ohne neue Umsatzquellen bald an Grenzen für die weitere Expansion stoßen könnte. 95 Prozent der weltweiten Werbeumsätze werden nach wie vor in den klassischen Medien getätigt.\nGoogle hat insbesondere in den USA bereits vielfältige Aktivitäten entwickelt. So bestehen Kooperationen und Pilotprojekte mit Presse- und Radiounternehmen, um den Einsatz der Google-Werbekonzepte auch in diesen Sektoren zu testen. Im digitalen, rückkanalfähigen Fernsehen hofft Google, ein Werbeinstrument lancieren zu können, das eine individuelle Werbeansprache der Zuschauer ermöglicht, was als wesentliche Innovation im Werbefernsehen angesehen würde. Auch bei mobilen Datendiensten möchte Google sein AdSense-System durchsetzen.[12]\nBetriebssysteme[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas auf Linux basierende Android[13] ist mit einem Marktanteil von 74,6 % das erfolgreichste mobile Betriebssystem der Welt.[14] Es ist offener als der nächst größte Konkurrent iOS von Apple und es gibt weitaus mehr unterschiedliche Geräte mit dem Betriebssystem.[15]\nIm Segment Smartwatch sind sie mit ihrem Betriebssystem Wear OS vertreten, der Marktanteil ist hier jedoch weit hinter WatchOS (Apple); auch die Hersteller Samsung und Huawei nutzen Wear OS nicht.[16][17]\nFinanzen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nUmsatz und Gewinn[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGeschäftszahlen\nJahr\nUmsatz\nin Mio. Dollar\nGewinn\nin Mio. Dollar\n2017[18] 110.855 12.662\n2016[18] 90.272 19.478\n2015[19] 74.989 16.348\n2014 66.001 14.136\n2013 55.519 12.920\n2012 46.039 10.737\n2011 37.905 9.737\n2010 29.321 8.505\n2009 23.648 6.519\n2008 21.795 4.282\n2007 16.503 4.203\n2006 10.604 3.078\n2005 6.139 1.465\n2004 3.200 399,1\n2003 961,9 105,6\n2002 347,8 99,7\n2001 86,4 7,0\n2000 19,1 −14,7\nSeit seiner Gründung hat Google seinen Umsatz und Gewinn deutlich gesteigert, siehe Tabelle. 2010 erzielte es einen Umsatz von 29,3 Milliarden US-Dollar und machte einen Gewinn von 8,5 Milliarden US-Dollar. Den größten Teil der Einnahmen nahmen dabei die Werbedienste mit 28,236 Milliarden US-Dollar ein. Weitere Einnahmen erfolgten unter anderem durch Lizenzierungen. 66 % der Einnahmen erfolgten über Google-Webseiten, 30 % über Google-Network-Seiten und 4 % über andere Quellen. Im vierten Quartal 2012 belief sich der Umsatz der Google Inc. auf 14.419 Millionen US-Dollar.[20]\nSteuerproblematik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle operiert größtenteils in Industrieländern. Um die dort geltenden Steuern auf Gewinne zu umgehen, transferiert Google Gewinne mittels Verrechnungspreisen über Irland in die Niederlande und anschließend nach Bermuda. Dadurch zahlte Google in den Jahren 2007 bis 2009 auf seine Gewinne außerhalb der USA nur einen effektiven Steuersatz von 2,4 % und umging in diesem Zeitraum Steuerzahlungen in Höhe von ungefähr 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar.[21] 2010 betrug der effektive Steuersatz laut einer Schätzung rund 3 %.[22] In den USA selbst betrug um das Jahr der effektive Steuersatz auf die ausgewiesenen Gewinne 22,4 %. Googles Steuervermeidung ist oft kritisiert worden; ebenso Regierungen, die Steuerschlupflöcher nicht stopfen.[21][23]\n2016 transferierte Google rund 16 Milliarden Euro nach Bermuda und 2017 fast 20 Milliarden Euro.[24]\nSteueraufkommen in Deutschland[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGemäß Angaben des Konzerns im Bundesanzeiger zahlte die Google Germany GmbH (Hauptsitz in Hamburg) im Jahr 2014 Einkommen- und Ertragsteuern in Höhe von 12,9 Millionen Euro. Der Umsatz für Deutschland wurde mit 279 Millionen Euro angegeben und ein Bruttogewinn von 22 Millionen Euro ausgewiesen. Laut Angaben der Frankfurter Allgemeinen Zeitung schätzt die VG Media den Jahresumsatz auf bis zu 5 Milliarden Euro. Laut dem Geschäftsbericht dient die Tochtergesellschaft in Deutschland „im Wesentlichen als Servicegesellschaft“ für die Niederlassungen Google Ireland Ltd in Dublin und für den Hauptsitz in den USA. Die Gewinne werden dort und nicht in Deutschland zu anderen Konditionen versteuert.[25]\nMitarbeiter[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle beschäftigt 102.000 Arbeitnehmer (Stand 2019). Außerdem arbeiten weitere 121.000 Mitarbeiter – also mehr als die Stammbelegschaft – als Werkvertragsnehmer und Zeitarbeiter für Google (Stand 2019).[26] In der Schweiz arbeiten mehr als 3000 Menschen für Google (Stand 2019).[27]\nNach anhaltenden Konflikten mit dem Management gründeten 230 Beschäftigte Anfang 2021 die Interessenvertretung Alphabet Workers Union.[28][29] Der CWA-Ableger steht Beschäftigten aller Unternehmen von Alphabet Inc. offen.[30]\nGeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLarry Page (2009)\nGründung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n1995 begegneten sich Larry Page und Sergey Brin an der Stanford University.[31] Sie konzipierten die Suchmaschine BackRub,[32] einen Google-Vorläufer. Sie wurde nach den Backlinks benannt, die zur Bestimmung der Wertigkeit einer Webseite analysiert werden.[33] Im Jahr 1998 äußerten Internetportale jedoch Desinteresse an der entwickelten Suchtechnik. Im August 1998 stellte der Investor Andreas von Bechtolsheim nach einer zehnminütigen Präsentation der Suchmaschine einen Scheck über 100.000 US-Dollar aus.[34] Da Bechtolsheim annahm, die Firma heiße „Google“, setzte er als Empfänger „Google Inc.“ ein. Ein solches Unternehmen existierte aber bis dahin nicht.[35] Larry Page und Sergey Brin ließen das Unternehmen unter diesem Namen registrieren, damit der Scheck eingelöst werden konnte.[36] Die Herkunft des Namens „Google“ ist außerdem auf die unter dem englischen Namen „googol“ bekannte (sehr große) Zahl 10 100 {\\displaystyle 10^{100}} zurückzuführen.[37] In einer Garage[38] gründeten sie am 4. September 1998 in Menlo Park die Google Inc. Mit einem Startkapital von 1.100.000 US-Dollar, aufgebracht von den Familien, Freunden und Andy Bechtolsheim, entwickelten und veröffentlichten sie die erste Testversion des Programms. Fünf Monate später bezog Google Inc. mit acht Angestellten ein Büro in Palo Alto. Etwa 500.000 Suchanfragen wurden nun täglich verzeichnet. Nachdem seit September 1999 (laut Google erst Mai 2002[39]) AOL und Netscape mit Google zusammenarbeiteten, versechsfachten sich die Suchanfragen. Ein Grund für den ersten Erfolg von Google war, dass andere Suchmaschinen, vor allem AltaVista, bei der Suche nicht schlechter waren, jedoch 1999 ihre Seiten zu umfangreichen Webportalen ausbauten. Bei den damals noch üblichen langsamen Internet-Verbindungen hatte die einfach aufgebaute Google-Seite deutliche Vorteile.[40][41]\nChronologie[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nEntwicklung bis zum Börsengang 2004\nAm 21. September 1999 wurde offiziell die Testphase der Google Websuche beendet und der „beta“-Hinweis von der Webseite entfernt.\nEnde des zweiten Quartals 2000 war Google Marktführer auf dem Gebiet der Suchmaschinen mit mehr als einer Milliarde Seiten im Index.\nIm Jahr 2001 wurde Eric Schmidt zum ersten CEO ernannt.\nIm Februar 2001 übernahm Google das Usenet-Archiv von Deja News und startete seine eigene Usenet-Suche Google Groups.[42]\nIm Februar 2003 übernahm Google die Blogging-Plattform Blogger.com des Unternehmens Pyra Labs, das zu dieser Zeit schon hunderttausende Nutzer zählte.[43]\nIm April 2003 kaufte Google das Unternehmen Applied Semantics, Inc. und integrierte die erworbene Technik später in Google AdSense. Applied Semantics hatte zuvor für Kunden wie Overture mit Hilfe einer KeyWordSense genannten Technik die semantische Bedeutung einer Webseite erkannt und gezielte Werbeeinblendungen ermöglicht.[44] Im Juni 2003 begann Google sein AdSense-Werbeprogramm, im Rahmen dessen auf teilnehmenden Websites themenrelevante Werbeanzeigen eingeblendet werden.\n2004\nGoogle übernahm das Unternehmen Where2 LLC. Später entwickelte sich hieraus Google Maps.\nAm 1. April offerierte Google die Beta-Version des kostenlosen E-Mail-Services Gmail mit 1 GB Speicherplatz je Nutzer.\nAm 13. Juli gab Google die Übernahme von Picasa, LLC bekannt, aus deren Entwicklung später das Produkt Google Picasa wurde.[45]\nAm 14. Oktober stellte das Unternehmen seine Google Desktop Search vor, ein Programm zum Durchsuchen der Datenbestände des eigenen Rechners.\nAm 27. Oktober wurde der Kauf der Keyhole Corp. bekanntgegeben. Keyhole legte den Grundstein für Google Earth.[46]\n2005\nAm 28. März übernahm Google die Urchin Software Corp. Später entstand daraus das Produkt Google Analytics.[47]\nAm 11. Mai gab Google die Übernahme von Dodgeball, einem mobilen sozialen Netzwerk, bekannt.[48] Hieraus wird später der Dienst Google Latitude.[48][49]\nIm August wurde der Kauf von Android Inc. bekanntgegeben.[50] 2008 veröffentlichte Google die erste Version des Android-Betriebssystems für Mobilgeräte.\nAm 21. Dezember gab Google den Erwerb von 5 % der Aktien von AOL Time Warner bekannt.\nIm Jahr 2005 wurde Google Inc. erstmals auf der Forbes-Liste geführt, es gelang auf Anhieb der Sprung auf Platz 38. Der Unternehmenswert wurde auf etwa 55 Milliarden US-Dollar geschätzt.\n2006\nAm 9. März übernahm der Konzern die Start-Up-Firma Upstartle, LLC mit deren Produkt Writely. Später entstand hieraus und aus den Technologien der 2007 erworbenen Unternehmen Tonic Systems[51] und Zenter[52] Google Docs (heute: Google Drive).\nAm 14. März kaufte Google das Unternehmen @Last Software zur Integration von 3D-Skizzen in Google Earth.[53] Das Produkt nennt sich später Google SketchUp.\nAm 29. Juni startete Google das Bezahlsystem Google Checkout.\nAm 30. August startete Google seinen Service Google Books für das Herunterladen nicht mehr urheberrechtlich geschützter Bücher.\nAm 9. Oktober übernahm Google für 1,65 Mrd. US-Dollar das Internet-Videoportal YouTube.[54]\nAm 1. November kaufte Google die Wiki-Start-Up-Firma JotSpot Inc. Später wurde hieraus Google Sites.[55]\n2007\nSergey Brin (2005)\nGoogle durfte nach einem Gerichtsurteil vom 14. Februar 2007 in Belgien die Artikel nationaler Tageszeitungen nicht mehr veröffentlichen und musste 3,45 Mio. Euro Geldstrafe bezahlen.[56]\nIm März 2007 wurde die von dem Schweden Hans Rosling entwickelte Software Trendalyzer (früher Gapminder genannt) durch Übernahme des gleichnamigen Unternehmens erworben. Mit Trendalyzer ist es möglich, statistische Werte zu visualisieren. Einige Komponenten der Software wurden für die allgemeine Benutzung durch die Visualisierungsschnittstelle zur Anwendungsprogrammierung (Google Visualization API) verfügbar.[57]\nAm 13. April 2007 übernahm Google das Online-Werbenetzwerk DoubleClick, Inc., einen der größten Online-Werbevermarkter, für 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar und überbot damit unter anderem die Mitbieter Microsoft und Yahoo.[58] Die DoubleClick-Technik wurde später in Google AdWords integriert. Google dominiert damit den Markt für Onlinewerbung mit 80 % Marktanteil; die Konkurrenzunternehmen Microsoft und AT&T appellierten deshalb an die Kartellbehörden.[59]\nAm 23. April war Google Schätzungen zufolge die wertvollste Marke der Welt vor General Electric, Microsoft und Coca-Cola.[60] Drei Tage darauf konnte Google auf die meisten Besucher im Internet vor Microsoft, Yahoo, Time Warner, eBay und Wikipedia verweisen.[61]\nAm 30. Mai kaufte der Konzern Panoramio, ein Start-Up-Unternehmen, das sich auf die Verbreitung geolokaler Digitalfotos spezialisiert hatte. Diese Fotos können nun in Google Earth und Google Maps angezeigt werden.\nAm 3. Juli übernahm das Unternehmen den kalifornischen Telefondienstleister GrandCentral Communications. Hieraus entstand das VoIP-Produkt Google Voice.[62]\n2008\nIm März präsentierte Google seinen Dienst für elektronische Patientenakten namens Google Health.\nAm 23. Juli ging mit Knol ein Wissensportal in die öffentliche Testphase.\nIm September wurde ein von Google entwickelter Browser namens Google Chrome vorgestellt.\nGoogle wurde exklusiver Sponsor eines Satelliten namens GeoEye-1, der aktuelle hochauflösende Satellitenfotos für Google Earth und Google Maps liefert.[63][64] Beim Start des Satelliten waren die beiden Google-Gründer Larry Page und Sergey Brin anwesend.[65]\n2009\nSeit März können Werbekunden von Google über Interest Based Ads mittels interessenbasierter Anzeigen (siehe Targeted Advertising) Konsumenten gezielter ansprechen.[66][67][68]\nAm 31. März 2009 startete Google eine eigene Beteiligungsgesellschaft mit einem Risikokapital in Höhe von 100 Millionen US-Dollar, um dieses in erfolgversprechende Start-Up-Unternehmen aus allen Wirtschaftsteilen zu investieren. Der Schwerpunkt der Finanzinvestments liegt laut Aussage der Google-Ventures-Managing-Partner Rich Miner und Bill Maris in den Bereichen Software, Umwelttechnik, Biotechnologie, Gesundheitswesen und Internettechnologien für Verbraucher.[69][70][71]\nIm Mai 2009 wurde mit Google Wave ein internetbasiertes System zur Kommunikation und Zusammenarbeit in Echtzeit vorgestellt. Die Entwickler stammen aus der Firmenübernahme von Where2 LLC aus dem Jahr 2004, aus dem Google Maps entstand.\nIm Juni wurde Google Squared veröffentlicht, eine experimentelle Suchmaschine, die Suchergebnisse im Tabellenformat liefert und versucht, automatisch Struktur in unstrukturierte Daten aus dem Web zu bringen.[72][73]\nMit Google Chrome OS wurde ein für Computer konzipiertes Betriebssystem vorgestellt, das auf dem Linux-Kernel basiert und den integrierten Webbrowser Google Chrome als Hauptplattform für Webanwendungen nutzt. Google Chrome OS wurde wie Android als Open Source verfügbar gemacht.[74]\nGoogle Book Search strebte in den USA eine rechtliche Einigung über Copyright-Verletzungen bei eingescannten Büchern an. Gleichzeitig sollte darüber die bisherige Praxis der Copyright-Verletzung legalisiert werden und eine Nutzungsvereinbarung mit weltweit allen Buchautoren und Rechteinhabern getroffen werden, sofern sie dem Vergleichsvorschlag, dessen Einspruchsfrist der 8. September 2009 war, nicht widersprechen (siehe Google Book Settlement).\nAm 16. September 2009 gab Google bekannt, den führenden Captcha-Spezialisten reCAPTCHA übernommen zu haben. Damit ergab sich für Google die Möglichkeit, die eigenen Aktivitäten zur Digitalisierung von Handschriften und Büchern, z. B. im Rahmen von Google Bücher, zu unterstützen.\n2010\nIm Januar 2010 wurde das Mittelklasse-Smartphone Nexus vorgestellt, ein Vorläufer der Pixel-Reihe.[75]\nAm 9. Februar veröffentlichte das Unternehmen Google Buzz, einen Dienst zum Austausch von Nachrichten und Kommentaren.\n2011\nSeit Februar bietet das Google Art Project die Möglichkeit, virtuelle Rundgänge durch bedeutende internationale Kunstmuseen zu unternehmen und ausgewählte Kunstwerke in sehr hoher Auflösung und mit Zoomfunktion zu betrachten. Zusätzliche Informationen zu den Werken und Künstlern werden am Bildrand eingeblendet.[76]\nEnde März wurde der Dienst Google+ vorgestellt. Ähnlich dem Gefällt mir-Button von Facebook können Nutzer Suchergebnisse und Anzeigen mit dem +1-Button markieren, um andere Nutzer auf dieses Ergebnis aufmerksam zu machen.\nGoogle startet in Amerika Google Fiber. Erste Nutzer in Kansas City (Kansas) und Kansas City (Missouri) können mit der entsprechenden Netzwerk-Box einen Internetanschluss mit bis zu 1 Gbit/s Download und Upload erhalten, sowie bis zu 173 Fernsehkanäle empfangen.[77]\nIm August kündigte Google an, die Mobilfunksparte Motorola Mobility von Motorola für 12,5 Milliarden US-Dollar zu übernehmen.[78] Anfang 2014 wird die Marke Motorola für 2,9 Milliarden US-Dollar an Lenovo verkauft.[79]\nIm September gab Google die Übernahme vom Couponing-Portal DailyDeal und von Zagat Survey bekannt.[80] Der 1979 gegründete Restaurantführer soll das Angebot Google Places ergänzen.\n2011 steigerte Google seine Ausgaben für Lobbying deutlich. Von April bis Juni 2011 investierte Google in den USA 2,1 Millionen US-Dollar in die Einflussnahme, 2010 im selben Zeitraum dagegen 1,34 Millionen US-Dollar.[81] Als Hintergrund werden Schritte der Federal Trade Commission angesehen, evtl. eine Untersuchung über Googles Vormachtstellung im Internet anzustrengen.[82]\n2012\nGoogle hat sich im Rahmen des newTLD-Programms bei der ICANN um die Vergabe zahlreicher neuer Top-Level-Domains beworben. Dazu gehören unter anderem .google, .youtube, .docs, .lol, .blog, .chrome und .gmail sowie .store.[83] Mit insgesamt 101 Anträgen ist Google Spitzenreiter vor Amazon.[84] Google firmiert unter den Bewerbungen allerdings als „Charleston Road Registry Inc.“, eine Tochtergesellschaft von Google, die nur für die Vergabe neuer TLDs gegründet wurde.[85] Im Oktober 2012 wurde bekannt, dass das Unternehmen drei seiner Bewerbungen zurückgezogen hat, da diese nicht den Richtlinien der ICANN entsprochen haben.[86]\nIm Juni 2012 hat Google den Messengerdienst meebo gekauft.[87] Einige Funktionen des Dienstes wurden in Google-Produkte integriert.\nGoogle hat in Kooperation mit der Stiftung Entrepreneurship und Indiegogo die sogenannte Gründer-Garage ins Leben gerufen. Auf einer Onlineplattform können Existenzgründer aus Deutschland an kostenlosen Kursen teilnehmen und sich um eine Finanzierung durch die Projektpartner bewerben. Dabei setzt Google unter anderem auch auf Crowdfunding.[88]\nIm September 2012 gab Google die Übernahme des deutschen Unternehmens Nik Software bekannt. Diese ist vor allem für ihre iOS-App Snapseed bekannt, die Instagram sehr ähnelt. Die Akquisition wird gemeinhin als Angriff auf Facebook gesehen, das Instagram im April 2012 erworben und in zahlreiche eigene Dienste integriert hat.[89]\nIm November 2012 wurde Ingress vorgestellt, zunächst in Form einer geschlossenen Beta-Version. Das Spiel dreht sich um eine virtuelle Welt, die teilweise (je nach erreichtem Level) mit der echten Welt verschmelzen soll. Ingress wurde als erstes Alternative-Reality-Spiel für Smartphones überhaupt eingestuft und erfuhr daher eine breite mediale Beachtung. Entwickler ist John Hanke, ehemaliger Leiter der Abteilung für Geodaten bei Google.[90]\nIm Dezember 2012 wurde das Programm Google Business Photos gestartet. Teilnehmende Unternehmen können von ausgewählten Fotografen professionelle Bilder der jeweiligen Niederlassung und deren Räumlichkeiten erstellen lassen, die anschließend als Galerie auf Google veröffentlicht werden. Das Angebot ist eng mit Google Maps und Google+ Local verknüpft, wo Unternehmen bereits eigene Profile hinterlegen können.[91]\n2013\nIm Februar trat Google als eines der ersten Unternehmen der FIDO-Allianz bei, die den Industriestandard Universal Second Factor (U2F) für eine allgemein anwendbare Zwei-Faktor-Authentifizierung entwickelt hat.\nDas Chromebook Pixel wurde am 21. Februar in San Francisco vorgestellt.[92] Im Vergleich zu früheren Chromebooks zeichnet es sich vor allem durch seinen hochauflösenden Bildschirm mit Touchscreen aus, außerdem kann optional ein LTE-Modul konfiguriert werden. Das Notebook wurde zunächst über Google Play im Vereinigten Königreich und den Vereinigten Staaten verkauft.[93]\nIm März des Jahres veröffentlichte Google unter dem Namen Google Keep einen Dienst zur Verwaltung von Notizen und Aufgaben.[94] Zu Beginn stand neben einer webbasierten Oberfläche nur eine Anwendung für Android zur Verfügung, später sollen laut Google auch andere Plattformen abgedeckt werden. Der Dienst steht in direkter Konkurrenz zu Evernote, Wunderlist und Microsoft OneNote.[95]\nAnfang April stellte Google den Kontoinaktivität-Manager vor. Mit seiner Hilfe können Nutzer festlegen, was mit ihrem Google-Konto geschehen soll, wenn es nicht mehr genutzt wird und der Inhaber beispielsweise verstorben ist. In diesem Fall wird es nach einem festgelegten Zeitraum an Dritte übergeben und ggf. komplett gelöscht.[96] Ob Inaktivität vorliegt oder nicht, entscheidet Google anhand diverser Faktoren, etwa der Nutzung des Android-Handys oder des Webprotokolls.[97]\nIm Juni gab Google Project Loon bekannt: Mit Hilfe untereinander vernetzter Heißluftballons möchte das Unternehmen Gegenden mit einem Internetzugang versorgen, die bisher nicht anderweitig erreicht werden. In Canterbury (Neuseeland) wurde ein Testlauf mit 30 modifizierten Wetterballons durchgeführt, der nach eigenen Angaben eine Übertragungsrate vergleichbar mit UMTS erreichte und 50 Haushalte dauerhaft versorgen soll.[98]\nEnde 2013 übernahm Google das Unternehmen Boston Dynamics, das Robotiksysteme für das US-Militär entwickelt.[99]\n2014\nIm Januar 2014 übernahm Google mit Deep Mind einen Spezialisten für Künstliche Intelligenz.[100]\nAnfang 2014 kaufte Google den Thermostat- und Feuermelderhersteller Nest Labs.[101]\nIm April 2014 übernahm Google Titan Aerospace. Das Unternehmen stellt Spezialdrohnen her, die in großer Höhe satellitentypische Funktionen ausüben.[102]\nIm Juni 2014 kaufte Google das Unternehmen Skybox Imaging, ein Raumfahrtunternehmen, das hochauflösende Satellitenfotografie anbietet.[103]\nSeit November 2014 hat Google das Moffett Federal Airfield, im Silicon Valley zwischen San Francisco und San José gelegen, für 60 Jahre von der NASA gemietet. Die Miete für die gesamte Zeit beträgt 1,16 Milliarden US-Dollar.[104] Google möchte das Gelände für Tests im Bereich Luft- und Raumfahrt sowie Robotik nutzen.[105]\n2015\nFirmenstruktur der Alphabet Inc. 2015\nSeit August 2015 gehört die Google Inc. durch eine Umstrukturierung zu der neu gegründeten Holding-Dachgesellschaft Alphabet Inc., die von Larry Page und Sergey Brin geleitet wird. Diverse Tochterunternehmen und Abteilungen, darunter Calico, Nest Labs, X, Google Fiber, Google Capital und Google Ventures, werden aus Google Inc. ausgegliedert und direkt Alphabet untergeordnet.\n2016\nEnde 2016 startete Google die Handy-Serie Pixel als Nachfolge der Nexus-Smartphones.[106][107]\n2017\nIm März 2017 kaufte Google das Data-Science-Portal Kaggle.[108]\nIm September 2017 kaufte Google Teile des Smartphone-Herstellers HTC für 1,1 Milliarden US-Dollar. In diesem Deal sind auch die Rechte von HTC inbegriffen.[109]\nAm 1. September 2017 gab Google Inc. ihre Umbenennung in Google LLC bekannt.[110]\n2018\nIm März 2018 gab Google den Kauf der größten GIF-Suchmaschine Tenor bekannt, welche dadurch einzug in Google-Apps und Features erhielt.[111]\n2019\nAm 1. November 2019 gab Google bekannt, Fitbit für 2,1 Milliarden US-Dollar zu übernehmen.[112]\nBörsenentwicklung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAm 29. April 2004 verkündete das Unternehmen den Gang an die US-Börse. Die Online-Registrierung für den Börsengang (IPO), von dem man sich einen Erlös von 3,3 Milliarden US-Dollar erhoffte, begann am 1. August. Der ursprünglich geplante Ausgabepreis von 108 bis 135 US-Dollar je Aktie musste auf 80 bis 85 US-Dollar gesenkt werden, bevor die Aktie am 19. August 2004 zum ersten Mal in den Handel kam. Bereits am ersten Handelstag stieg der Kurs auf über 100 US-Dollar und machte damit Larry Page und Sergey Brin, die jeder etwa 38 Millionen Aktien hielten, zu Multimilliardären.\nAm 18. November 2005 kletterte die Aktie über die 400-US-Dollar-Marke. Bei 179.123.000 ausgegebenen Aktien hatte Google damit einen Marktwert von 112 Milliarden US-Dollar. Aufgrund des hohen Börsenkurses übertraf Google große Konzerne wie Coca-Cola, IBM, Cisco oder Time Warner. Die Google-Gründer befanden sich nun in den Top 20 der reichsten Menschen der USA.[113]\nAm 24. Oktober 2006 überstieg der Google-Marktwert 150 Milliarden US-Dollar. Damit war Google weit mehr wert als das Branchenschwergewicht IBM.[114][115] Die Aktie des Unternehmens kletterte am 22. November 2006 über die 500-US-Dollar-Marke. Bei 179.123.000 ausgegebenen Aktien hatte Google damit einen Marktwert von 156 Milliarden US-Dollar. Damit rangierte Google auf Platz 14 der US-Unternehmen und weltweit auf Platz 3 der IT-Unternehmen.[116]\nAm 19. Oktober 2007 kletterte Googles Marktwert auf über 200 Milliarden US-Dollar.[117] Damit rangierte Google auf Platz 2 hinter Microsoft (293 Milliarden US-Dollar) der weltweiten IT-Unternehmen[118] und auf Platz 10 aller US-Unternehmen.[119] Die Aktie war am 31. Oktober 2007 innerhalb von drei Wochen von 600 US-Dollar auf 700 US-Dollar gestiegen, der Marktwert lag damit bei 220 Milliarden US-Dollar. Google zog so 2007 an Procter & Gamble (218 Milliarden US-Dollar), der Bank of America (214 Milliarden US-Dollar) und dem weltgrößten Automobilhersteller Toyota (204 Milliarden US-Dollar) vorbei.[120]\nInsgesamt gibt es 313 Millionen Aktien von Google LLC. Der Wert der Aktie lag Anfang 2007 bei mehr als 500 US-Dollar. Ende 2007 erreichte die Aktie ein Allzeithoch von über 700 US-Dollar.[121] Der Börsenwert betrug am 17. März 2008 rund 84 Milliarden US-Dollar; der Börsenkurs lag an diesem Tag bei etwa 268 US-Dollar pro Aktie. Das zweite Quartal 2012 war sehr erfolgreich und der Gewinn betrug 2,8 Milliarden Dollar, bei einem Aktienkurs von 550 Euro.[122]\nLogos[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas Logo ist der Firmenname „Google“, geschrieben in vier Farben: blau für die beiden Buchstaben „G“ und „g“, rot für das „o“ und „e“, gelb für das zweite „o“ und grün für das „l“. Die Schriftart – Catull (verwendet für das Logo von 1999 bis 31. August 2015) – wurde 1982 von Gustav Jäger für die H. Berthold AG gestaltet.[123] Das Logo wurde einige Male leicht verändert. Mit dem Logo ab 1. September 2015 verabschiedet sich Google von den Serifen und verwendet „Product Sans“ als neue Schriftart.[124]\nErstes Logo\n(September 1998)\nZweites Logo (1998)\nDrittes Logo bis 1999\nViertes Logo bis\nzum 5. Mai 2010\nFünftes Logo bis zum 19. September 2013\nSechstes Logo bis\nzum 31. August 2015\nSiebtes Logo seit\ndem 1. September 2015\nAm 27. September 2019 widmete sich Google selbst ein Google-Doodle zum „21. Geburtstag von Google“.\nPatente und Gebrauchsmuster[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nUm das umfassende Produktportfolio zu schützen, meldete Google im Jahr 2007 595 Patente und Gebrauchsmuster an. Durch die Akquisition von Motorola Mobility und weiteren Unternehmen ist davon auszugehen, dass die Zahl der Patente, welche im Besitz von Google sind, deutlich höher ist.\nKaritatives Engagement[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMit Google.org besteht abseits des eigentlichen Unternehmens, der Google LLC, seit 2005 eine karitative Einrichtung, welche als „philanthropischer Arm von Google“ bezeichnet wird.[125] Das Startkapital betrug 1 Milliarde Dollar. Ihr Ziel ist es, gewinnbringend in verschiedene vorhandene Projekte zu investieren, aber auch eigene Unternehmungen anzugehen. Google.org will vor allem Bereiche wie globale Armut, Energie und Umweltschutz abdecken. Zu den bekanntesten Projekten zählt die Google Vermisstensuche und die geplante Mitentwicklung eines Hybridautos. Derzeitiger Direktor ist der Arzt und Epidemiologe Larry Brilliant, Gründer und Leiter der Seva Foundation.\nStandorte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas Googleplex\nDas Unternehmen hat seine Zentrale, das Googleplex, in Mountain View im Silicon Valley, wo das Unternehmen auch gegründet wurde. Daneben unterhält Google viele Zweigniederlassungen in der ganzen Welt. Die Zentrale für das Geschäft in EMEA befindet sich in Dublin am Grand Canal Dock. Andere Standorte sind in Europa neben Dänemark, Polen, Tschechien, der Schweiz (Entwicklungszentrum in Zürich seit 2004; damals noch mit einem Zweipersonenbüro, 2021 mit über 4000 Angestellten das größte Entwicklungszentrum in Europa[126][127]), Frankreich und den Niederlanden auch in Deutschland in Hamburg (Zentrale von Google Germany in der ABC-Straße) und München eingerichtet worden.[128]\nIm Februar 2011 wurde bekannt gegeben, dass in Berlin ein neues Forschungsinstitut aufgebaut werden soll.[129] Anlässlich der Gründungsveranstaltung erläuterte Googles Rechtsvorstand David Drummond in einem Gastbeitrag für Zeit Online, welche Absichten der Konzern bei diesem Engagement verfolgt: „[Wir möchten] die Interaktion zwischen Internet, Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft besser verstehen. Wir benötigen dazu die Hilfe von wissenschaftlichen Experten […] Wenn wir sicherstellen möchten, dass Forschung auch in Zukunft auf einer nachhaltigen Grundlage basiert und ihren Platz auf der Agenda der Entscheidungsträger behält, dann muss die Öffentlichkeit stärker einbezogen werden.“ (25. Okt. 2011[130])\nRechenzentren[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle Data Center in The Dalles, Oregon. Im Vordergrund die Hochspannungsanlage zur Stromversorgung\nGoogle LLC betreibt weltweit eine Reihe von Rechenzentren, die jeweils die komplette Funktionalität der Suchmaschine enthalten. Eine Benutzeranfrage wird, gesteuert durch das Domain Name System, im Idealfall an das netztopologisch nächste Rechenzentrum – nicht immer mit dem geografisch nächstgelegenen identisch – geleitet und von ihm beantwortet. Fällt ein Rechenzentrum ganz aus, übernimmt ein anderes seine Aufgaben.\nDie Standorte sind derzeit:[131]\nNordamerika[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nBerkeley County, USA-South Carolina South Carolina\nCouncil Bluffs, USA-Iowa Iowa\nThe Dalles, USA-Oregon Oregon\nDouglas County, USA-Georgia Georgia\nHenderson, USA-Nevada Nevada\nJackson County, USA-Alabama Alabama\nLenoir, USA-North Carolina North Carolina\nLoudoun County, USA-Virginia Virginia\nMayes County, USA-Oklahoma Oklahoma\nMidlothian, USA-Texas Texas\nSüdamerika[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nQuilicura, Chile Chile\nEuropa[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDublin, Irland Irland\nEemshaven, Niederlande Niederlande\nFredericia, Danemark Dänemark\nHamina, Finnland Finnland\nSaint-Ghislain, Belgien Belgien\nAsien[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLandkreis Changhua, Taiwan Taiwan\nSingapur Singapur\nDie Errichtung von Rechenzentren in Asien wurde von Beobachtern als Zeichen gewertet, dass Google dort ein großes Wachstum erwartet.[132]\nGoogle hebt hervor, dass das Unternehmen seit 2007, vor allem durch Erwerb von Emissionsausgleichskontingenten, CO2-neutral arbeitet.[133][134][135]\nHardware[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nErstes Google-Serverrack, ausgestellt im Computer History Museum\nJedes Rechenzentrum besteht aus einem Rechnerverbund (Cluster). Die verwendeten Rechner sind IBM-kompatible Personal Computer, bestehen also aus preiswerten Standardkomponenten. Hier kommt das selbstentwickelte Google File System zum Einsatz, eine verteilte Architektur, bei der alle Daten mehrfach redundant auf verschiedenen Geräten gespeichert sind. Ist einer der Rechner oder nur eine Festplatte eines Rechners ausgefallen, werden die entsprechenden Daten von einer anderen Stelle im Cluster auf einen Ersatzrechner kopiert, und die ausgefallene Hardware-Komponente kann im laufenden Betrieb ausgetauscht werden, ohne dass Ausfälle entstehen. Das Gesamtsystem ist skalierbar, d. h., dass nach Bedarf weitere Rechner und Festplatten hinzugefügt werden können.\nMan schätzt, dass Google über etwa eine Million Server verfügt (2011).[136]\nVeranstaltungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle veranstaltet jährlich den Google Summer of Code und hilft dabei innovativen Softwareprojekten u. a. finanziell. Außerdem sponsert Google die AI Challenge, einen Programmierwettbewerb im Bereich künstlicher Intelligenz. Zudem werden jedes Jahr mehrere Entwicklerkonferenzen abgehalten. Dazu gehören die Google I/O und der Summer of Code.\nKritik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n→ Hauptartikel: Kritik an der Google LLC\nGoogle steht im Umgang mit dem Datenschutz öfter in der Kritik. Zu weiteren Kritikpunkten am Unternehmen gehören stattfindende Filterung aus der Ergebnisliste der Suchmaschine, der Umgang mit der Konkurrenz, Urheberrechtsverletzungen, Steuerflucht und eine Quasi-Monopolstellung. Weiterhin beteiligt sich Google seit 2017 am Militärprojekt Maven des US-Verteidigungsministeriums zur automatisierten Zielerfassung mittels künstlicher Intelligenz.[137]\nLiterarische und filmische Verarbeitung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIm Thriller Toggle wurde das Unternehmen von Florian Felix Weyh 2012 als „Toggle Inc.“ fiktionalisiert. Der Konzern betreibt im Roman über das Suchmaschinengeschäft hinaus einen Dienst namens „Toggle Democracy“, der aufgrund gespeicherter Daten seiner Nutzer deren individuellen Menschenwert errechnet und damit politische und wirtschaftliche Privilegien bzw. Nachteile verknüpft.[138][139][140] Das demokratische Prinzip „one man, one vote“ wird im Roman außer Kraft gesetzt. Ähnliche dystopische Erwartungen äußerte Weyh u. a. bereits 2007 in seinem Sachbuch Die letzte Wahl.\nIn der US-amerikanischen Filmkomödie Prakti.com (Originaltitel The Internship) fangen zwei Arbeitslose in den Mitt-Vierzigern ein Praktikum bei Google an. Das Unternehmen ist nicht an der Produktion des Films beteiligt, trotzdem durfte ein Teil des Filmes im Googleplex, dem Unternehmenssitz von Google, gedreht werden. Der überwiegende Teil entstand jedoch auf dem Campus des Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.\nLiteratur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDavid Vise, Mark Malseed: The Google Story., Random House, New York 2005, ISBN 0-553-80457-X (engl. Originalausg., Auszüge; Website zum Buch)\nDavid Vise, Mark Malseed: Die Google-Story . Murmann, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-938017-56-2.\nJohn Battelle: Die Suche. Geschäftleben und Kultur im Banne von Google & Co . Börsenmedien, Kulmbach 2006, ISBN 3-938350-11-3.\nJean-Noël Jeanneney: Googles Herausforderung. Für eine europäische Bibliothek . Wagenbach, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-8031-2534-0.\nRalf Kaumanns, Veit Siegenheim: Die Google-Ökonomie: Wie Google die Wirtschaft verändert . BoD, Norderstedt 2007, ISBN 978-3-8334-9795-7.\nMarcel Marchill, Markus Beiler: Die Macht der Suchmaschinen . Halem, Köln 2007, ISBN 978-3-938258-33-0.\nGerald Reischl: Die Google-Falle. Die unkontrollierte Weltmacht im Internet . Überreuther, Wien 2008, ISBN 978-3-8000-7323-8.\nLars Reppesgard: Das Google Imperium . Murmann, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-86774-046-3.\nJeff Jarvis: Was würde Google tun? Wie man von den Erfolgsstrategien des Internet-Giganten profitiert. Heyne, 2009 (englisch: What would Google do? New York, NY: HarperBusiness, ISBN 978-0-06-170971-5 . Übersetzt von Heike Holtsch).\nTheo Röhle: Der Google-Komplex: über Macht im Zeitalter des Internets, Transcript, Bielefeld 2010, ISBN 978-3-8376-1478-7 (Dissertation Uni Hamburg 2010, 261 Seiten).\nBernd M. Samland: Der Google-Effekt: die Bildung markenspezifischer Verben, Logos, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-8325-2374-9 (Dissertation Universität Rostock 2010, 182 Seiten).\nSteven Levy: Google Inside. Wie Google denkt, arbeitet und unser Leben verändert. mitp, Heidelberg 2012, ISBN 978-3-8266-9243-7. (Amerikanische Originalausgabe: In the Plex. How Google Thinks, Works and Shapes Our Lives. Simon & Schuster, New York 2011).\nEric Schmidt, Jonathan Rosenberg, Alan Eagle: Wie Google tickt. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2015, ISBN 978-3-593-50216-8 (Die amerikanische Originalausgabe How Google Works erschien erstmals 2014 bei Grand Central Publishing in New York)\nThomas Schulz: Was Google wirklich will. Wie der einflussreichste Konzern der Welt unsere Zukunft verändert. 3. Auflage. Penguin, München 2017, ISBN 978-3-328-10143-7. (Die deutsche Originalausgabe erschien erstmals 2015 bei der Deutschen Verlags-Anstalt in München)\nScott Galloway: The Four. Die geheime DNA von Amazon, Apple, Facebook und Google. Plassen, Kulmbach 2018, ISBN 978-3-86470-487-1. (Amerikanische Originalausgabe: The Four. The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook and Google. Portfolio/Penguin, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-7352-1365-4)\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nWeitere Inhalte in den\nSchwesterprojekten der Wikipedia:\nCommons – Medieninhalte (Kategorie)\nWiktionary – Wörterbucheinträge\nWikinews – Nachrichten\nWikiquote – Zitate\nOffizielle Website\nOffizieller Blog\nOffizielle Google-Zeitgeschichte, eine Auflistung von Meldungen seit Sommer 1995 (englisch)\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ Alphabet Finishes Reorganization With New XXVI Company, Mark Bergen\n↑ Google-Unternehmensinformationen\n↑ statista.com: Marktanteile der Suchmaschinen weltweit nach mobiler und stationärer Nutzung im Juni 2018, statista.\n↑ BrandZ Top 100 Most valuable global brands 2011 (PDF), MillwordBrown\n↑ Best Global Brands 2013 (Memento vom 21. Oktober 2014 im Internet Archive) (PDF), Interbrand\n↑ Mitteilung der Börsenaufsicht der Vereinigten Staaten; United States Securities and Exchange Commission vom 2. Oktober 2015, abgerufen am 5. Oktober 2015.\n↑ Gründer bauen Internetkonzern um – Google wird zu Alphabet, tagesschau.de.\n↑ Revolution bei Google: Abspaltungen und eine Holding, heise.de.\n↑ Google vollzieht Umbau zu Alphabet-Holding, heise-online vom 3. Oktober 2015.\n↑ Wade Roush: Google zum Gähnen. Artikel, Technology Review, 19. Juni 2006. Abgerufen am 7. Februar 2007\n↑ Ivan Mehta: Killed By Google is a digital graveyard of the company’s dead products. 26. März 2019, abgerufen am 25. August 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Ralf Kaumanns, Veit Siegenheim: Von der Suchmaschine zum Werbekonzern (Memento vom 16. Dezember 2014 im Internet Archive) (PDF; 1,5 MB). MP 1/2008, S. 25–33.\n↑ Android basiert auf Linux, aber was bedeutet das? Abgerufen am 31. August 2020.\n↑ Mobile Operating System Market Share Worldwide. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (englisch).\n↑ Der große iOS vs. Android Vergleich – alle Fakten im Check. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020.\n↑ Denny Fischer: Fast niemand kauft Android-Uhren: Wear OS by Google endgültig gescheitert? 26. August 2020, abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ 4 Ways Google's Android Beats Samsung's Android and 3 Ways It Doesn't. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ a b Alphabet Registered (A) Bilanz, Gewinn und Umsatz | Alphabet Registered (A) Geschäftsbericht | A14Y6F. Abgerufen am 21. Oktober 2018.\n↑ Alphabet Investor Relations. In: Alphabet Investor Relations. Abgerufen am 16. März 2016.\n↑ Angaben von Google, 2011 Financial Tables\n↑ a b Google 2.4% Rate Shows How $60 Billion Lost to Tax Loopholes, 20. Oktober 2010 Bloomberg\n↑ FAZ: Google und andere – Über Irland Gewinne in Steueroasen schleusen, 28. August 2011\n↑ Corporate Tax Holiday in Debt Ceiling Deal: Where’s the Uproar?, 20. Juli 2011, Rolling Stone Politics – Matt Taibbi\n↑ FAZ.net 4. Januar 2019: Google schleuste 20 Milliarden Euro durch Steuerschlupfloch\n↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Googles deutsches Steuersparmodell, 29. Januar 2016\n↑ Google beschäftigt mehr Zeitarbeiter als eigene Mitarbeiter\n↑ 15 Jahre Google Schweiz - «Google.ch hat die Schweizer Onlinelandschaft umgepflügt». In: srf.ch. 10. September 2019, abgerufen am 29. September 2019.\n↑ Axel Kannenberg: Googles US-Mitarbeiter gründen Gewerkschaft. In: heise online. 4. Januar 2021, abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Tobias Költzsch: Alphabet. Google-Mitarbeiter gründen Betriebsrat. In: Golem.de. IT-News für Profis. 4. Januar 2021, abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Alphabet Workers Union. Abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Der Triumph der grossen Zahl . Neue Zürcher Zeitung. 25. April 2008. Abgerufen am 6. Mai 2008.\n↑ 20 Jahre Google: BackRub – So hat vor über zwei Jahrzehnten die Geschichte von Google begonnen . In: GoogleWatchBlog . 26. August 2018 (googlewatchblog.de [abgerufen am 2. September 2018]).\n↑ John Battelle: The Birth of Google. In: Wired, August 2005.\n↑ Googeln wie ein Gott mz-web.de 14. September 2008\n↑ Offizielle Unternehmensgeschichte von Google, 8. Februar 2008\n↑ „Google, ein 100.000-Dollar-Missverständnis“, Heise online, 7. September 2008\n↑ David Koller: Origin of the name „Google“. Abgerufen am 19. Oktober 2016 (englisch).\n↑ Ansicht der Garage 1998 auf der Google Webseite\n↑ Unternehmensgeschichte im Detail: 2002, Google Inc.\n↑ Sergey Brin, Lawrence Page: The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine . In: Computer Networks and ISDN Systems . Band 30, Nr. 1–7, 1998, S. 107–117, doi:10.1016/S0169-7552(98)00110-X (englisch, stanford.edu [PDF; abgerufen am 9. März 2020]).\n↑ L.A. Barroso, J. Dean, U. Holzle: Web search for a planet: the google cluster architecture . In: IEEE Micro . 23, Nr. 2, 29. April 2003, S. 22–28. doi:10.1109/mm.2003.1196112. „We believe that the best price/performance tradeoff for our applications comes from fashioning a reliable computing infrastructure from clusters of unreliable commodity PCs.“\n↑ Google Acquires Usenet Discussion Service and Significant Assets from Deja.com\n↑ Blogger.com: Über uns. Abgerufen am 5. Dezember 2014.\n↑ Google Buys Applied Semantics\n↑ Google Acquires Picasa\n↑ Google Acquires Keyhole Corp\n↑ Google Inc.: Google Agrees To Acquire Urchin, 28. März 2005\n↑ a b VentureBeat: Google Acquires Dodgeball\n↑ Where Are You? Show 'Em With Google Latitude\n↑ BusinessWeek: (Memento vom 21. Oktober 2011 im Internet Archive) Google Buys Android for Its Mobile Arsenal\n↑ Official Google Blog: We're expecting (Memento vom 30. Dezember 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Official Google Blog: More sharing (Memento vom 30. Dezember 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Official Google Blog: A new home for @Last Software\n↑ tagesschau.de: Google schluckt Videoportal YouTube (Memento vom 17. Juli 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Google übernahm Wiki-Startup JotSpot, heise.de\n↑ BuchMarkt 3/2007, S. 25\n↑ Google Visualization API Gadget Gallery, Google Developers\n↑ Google kauft DoubleClick für 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar, golem.de\n↑ „Google und DoubleClick würden zusammen mehr als 80 Prozent der Werbung umschlagen, die ein Internet-Nutzer sieht, wenn er eine Website ansteuert, argumentierten sie.“ spiegel.de\n↑ Ranking. Google ist wertvollste Marke der Welt, spiegel.de, 23. April 2007.\n↑ spiegel.de: für März 2007: „1. Google (528 Millionen Besucher) 2. Microsoft (527 Millionen Besucher) 3. Yahoo (473 Millionen Besucher) 4. Time-Warner (272 Millionen Besucher) 5. Ebay (256 Millionen Besucher) 6. Wikipedia (212 Millionen Besucher)“\n↑ Google integriert GrandCentral als Google Voice, heise.de\n↑ Geoeye-1: Googles Satellit liefert erstes Bild, netzwelt.de\n↑ Google wirft ein GeoEye-1 auf Earth, silicon.de\n↑ Bernd Kling: Google sieht dich – jetzt noch schärfer, itespresso.de, 7. September 2008\n↑ AdSense Blog: Höhere Einnahmen durch maßgeschneiderte Anzeigen\n↑ Behavioral Targeting bei Google AdSense und YouTube, golem.de\n↑ Personalisierte Werbung – Google weiß, wo du surfst, sueddeutsche.de\n↑ Alexis Johann: Google Ventures verteilt 100 Millionen an Start Ups (Memento vom 8. Dezember 2014 im Internet Archive). wirtschaftsblatt.at, 1. April 2009\n↑ ZDnet: Google startet Beteiligungsgesellschaft Google Ventures\n↑ Google’s newest venture, Google Blog\n↑ What Is Google Squared? It Is How Google Will Crush Wolfram Alpha (Exclusive Video), Techcrunch\n↑ Google Squared ist online, heise online\n↑ Google veröffentlicht den Quelltext von Chrome OS. Heise Online, 19. November 2009, abgerufen am 20. November 2009.\n↑ Technische Details zum Google Nexus One - fairhandy. Abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ Pressemitteilung von Google am 1. Februar 2011. Abgerufen am 11. Februar 2011 (englisch).\n↑ Google Fiber – How to get Fiber, fiber.google.com, abgerufen am 8. März 2013\n↑ Volker Briegleb: Google übernimmt Motorola Mobility. heise online, 15. August 2011.\n↑ Roland Lindner: Verkauf an Lenovo: Google stößt Motorola wieder ab. FAZ.NET, 29. Januar 2014.\n↑ Google übernimmt Restaurantführer Zagat Survey, abgerufen am 12. September 2011\n↑ Google drängt auf das Parkett der Super-Lobbyisten, Lobbycontrol, 29. Juli 2011\n↑ Google’s Lobbying Blitz, Newsweek, 23. Juli 2011\n↑ Expanding the Internet domain space. In: Google Official Blog. Abgerufen am 5. Juli 2012 (englisch).\n↑ 70 New-gTLD-Bewerber aus Deutschland – Google und Amazon Spitzenreiter. In: united-domains Blog. Abgerufen am 7. Mai 2012.\n↑ Internetnews.com, abgerufen am 16. August 2012\n↑ Google zieht drei Domain Bewerbungen zurück. In: united-domains Blog. 6. September 2012, abgerufen am 15. Oktober 2012.\n↑ Lisa Hemmerich: Übernahme: Google kauft Instant-Messaging-Dienst Meebo. In: netzwelt. 5. Juni 2012, abgerufen am 18. September 2012.\n↑ Annika Demgen: Link-Wink: Google startet „Gründer-Garage“ in Berlin. In: netzwelt. 3. August 2012, abgerufen am 4. August 2012.\n↑ Yvonne Ortmann: Kampf der Fotodienste: Google schnappt sich Foto-App Snapseed. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 18. September 2012, archiviert vom Original am 19. September 2012; abgerufen am 4. Februar 2019.\n↑ Yvonne Ortmann: Google Ingress: Weltweites Alternate-Reality-Spiel fürs Smartphone. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 17. November 2012, archiviert vom Original am 19. November 2012; abgerufen am 2. April 2019.\n↑ Lars Budde: Google integriert Unternehmensfotos in Suchergebnisse. In: t3n Magazin. 20. Dezember 2012, abgerufen am 21. Dezember 2012.\n↑ Pascal: Chromebook Pixel vorgestellt. In: googlewatchblog.de. 21. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 22. Juli 2013.\n↑ Jürgen Kuri: Google: Chromebook Pixel mit Touchscreen und hochauflösendem Display. In: heise online. 22. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jan Tißler: Google Keep: Notizendienst offiziell gestartet. In: t3n Magazin. 20. März 2013, archiviert vom Original am 22. März 2013; abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jürgen Vielmeier: Wie Google es immer noch schafft zu überraschen. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: Netzwertig. 21. März 2013, archiviert vom Original am 23. März 2013; abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jan Tißler: Google Kontoinaktivität-Manager: So regelst du deinen digitalen Nachlass. In: t3n Magazin. 11. April 2013, abgerufen am 12. April 2013.\n↑ Über den Kontoinaktivität-Manager. In: Hilfe. Google Inc., abgerufen am 12. April 2013.\n↑ Kim Rixecker: Project Loon: Heißluftballons bringen das Internet in entlegene Gegenden. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 17. Juni 2013, archiviert vom Original am 20. Juni 2013; abgerufen am 2. April 2019.\n↑ Andreas Donath: Boston Dynamics: Google kauft zum Jahresende Militärroboter-Hersteller. Golem.de, 14. Dezember 2013, abgerufen am 16. Dezember 2013.\n↑ Henning Steier: Google kauft DeepMind. nzz.ch, 27. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 31. Januar 2014.\n↑ Henning Steier: Google kauft Google möchte Nest Labs kaufen. nzz.ch, 14. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 27. März 2018.\n↑ NTV: Hyperschnell und hochfliegend: Google kauft Drohenenbauer. n-tv.de, 16. April 2014, abgerufen am 16. April 2014.\n↑ Google kauft Spezialisten für Satellitenbilder. Handelsblatt, abgerufen am 10. Juni 2014.\n↑ Google gönnt sich einen Flughafen, sueddeutsche.de am 11. November 2014\n↑ Google mietet kalifornischen Flugplatz für 60 Jahre, heise.de, 11. November 2014\n↑ Google Pixel: Release, technische Daten, Bilder und Preis. 5. Oktober 2016, abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ Pixel 3a (XL): Vorstellungstermin für neues Google-Handy steht fest. 16. April 2019, abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ techcrunch.com: Google is acquiring data science community Kaggle\n↑ Milliarden-Deal: Google kauft Teile der HTC-Smartphone-Sparte – Golem.de . (golem.de [abgerufen am 22. September 2017]).\n↑ bloomberg.com: Alphabet Finishes Reorganization With New XXVI Company\n↑ Markus Kasanmascheff: Google kauft Tenor: Das können GIF-Nutzer nach dem Deal erwarten. In: Netzwelt. 28. März 2018, abgerufen am 8. März 2021.\n↑ Rick Osterloh: Helping more people with wearables: Google to acquire Fitbit. In: blog.google. 1. November 2019, abgerufen am 1. November 2019 (englisch).\n↑ Google-Aktie klettert über 400-Dollar-Marke, heise.de\n↑ Rekord: Der Google-Marktwert steigt über 150 Milliarden Dollar, spiegel.de\n↑ Google ist an der Wall Street mehr wert als IBM, heise.de\n↑ Aktien von Apple und Google auf Allzeithoch, heise.de\n↑ heise.de: Googles Börsenwert knackt die 200-Milliarden-Grenze\n↑ „Google hat inzwischen alle Technologie- und Internet-Werte mit Ausnahme von Microsoft [Börsenwert 293 Mrd. Dollar überholt. Die Google-Aktien sind insgesamt mehr wert als die des Netzwerkausrüsters Cisco Systems [199 Mrd.], des Chip-Riesen Intel [158 Mrd.] und der Computer-Branchenführer IBM [156 Mrd.] und Hewlett-Packard [137 Mrd.].“] orf.at\n↑ „Vor wenigen Tagen überschritt der Kurs der Google-Aktie die 600-Dollar-Marke und das Unternehmen steht mittlerweile in der Rangliste der wertvollsten US-Gesellschaften auf Platz zehn.“ sueddeutsche.de\n↑ Google-Aktie: In nur drei Wochen 100 US-Dollar teurer, heise.de\n↑ welt.de: Google-Aktie knackt auch die 700-US-Dollar-Marke\n↑ Geschäftsbericht Google Inc. (PDF; 127 kB)\n↑ Catull Pro. In: Berthold Types. Abgerufen am 26. August 2012.\n↑ Spezifikation der Schriftart „Product Sans“ https://storage.googleapis.com/g-design/static/product-sans-specimen.pdf\n↑ Google commits $1 billion to charity. The Boston Globe, 12. Oktober 2005, abgerufen am 23. August 2016 (englisch).\n↑ Peter Haber, Jan Hodel: Internet. In: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. 20. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 4. März 2020.\n↑ Claudia Rey: Google expandiert in Zürich . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . Nr. 124, 2. Juni 2021, S. 13 (nzz.ch [abgerufen am 2. Juni 2021]).\n↑ aecom.com (Memento vom 18. Januar 2015 im Webarchiv archive.today)\n↑ Internet und Gesellschaft: Google baut Forschungsinstitut in Berlin – Artikel bei Golem.de, vom 16. Februar 2011\n↑ David Drummond: Google: „Interaktion von Internet, Forschung und Gesellschaft verstehen“. Zeit Online, 25. Oktober 2011\n↑ Discover our data center locations. Abgerufen am 25. Dezember 2019 (englisch).\n↑ Google lässt in Asien bauen. In: n-tv. 15. Dezember 2011, abgerufen am 26. August 2012.\n↑ Google green, abgerufen am 3. Februar 2016\n↑ Wie viel Energie verbraucht das Netz? Zeit online, 13. Mai 2011\n↑ Google legt erstmals seinen Energieverbrauch offen Die Welt, 8. September 2011\n↑ Jonathan D. Koomney, Professor an der Stanford University – Growth In Data Center Electricity Use 2005 To 2010 (PDF) Blogbeitrag auf Koomneys Website. Abgerufen am 23. April 2015.\n↑ https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Militaer-Projekt-Maven-Hunderte-Wissenschaftler-unterstuetzen-protestierende-Google-Mitarbeiter-4050834.html\n↑ Immer dieses böse, böse Internet, ZEITonline, abgerufen am 11. Januar 2012.\n↑ Google will die Weltherrschaft, Die Presse, abgerufen am 15. Januar 2012\n↑ Napper, Zapper, Bauernfänger In: Süddeutsche Zeitung 14. Januar 2012.\nAlphabet Inc.\nGoogle LLC | Calico | Nest Labs | X | Google Fiber | CapitalG | GV | Waymo | Verily Life Sciences | Sidewalk Labs | Jigsaw | DeepMind\nProjekte von X: Project Loon\n37.422222222222-122.08444444444Koordinaten: 37° 25′ 20″ N, 122° 5′ 4″ W\nNormdaten (Körperschaft): GND: 10122609-3 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: no00095539 | VIAF: 124291214\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_LLC&oldid=215594784“\nKategorien:\nInternetunternehmen\nGoogle\nAlphabet Inc.\nUnternehmen (Mountain View, Kalifornien)\nOGC-Mitglied\nGegründet 1998\nMitglied im Council on Foreign Relations\nUnternehmen (Künstliche Intelligenz)\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nMeta\nWikiquote\nIn anderen Sprachen\nAfrikaans\nአማርኛ\nÆnglisc\nالعربية\nالدارجة\nمصرى\nঅসমীয়া\nAsturianu\nAzərbaycanca\nتۆرکجه\nBasa Bali\nBoarisch\nŽemaitėška\nБеларуская\nБеларуская (тарашкевіца)\nБългарски\nभोजपुरी\nBanjar\nBamanankan\nবাংলা\nBrezhoneg\nBosanski\nCatalà\nMìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄\nCebuano\nکوردی\nČeština\nЧӑвашла\nCymraeg\nDansk\nThuɔŋjäŋ\nZazaki\nDolnoserbski\nडोटेली\nΕλληνικά\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFøroyskt\nFrançais\nGaeilge\n贛語\nGalego\nBahasa Hulontalo\nગુજરાતી\nHausa\n客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî\nעברית\nहिन्दी\nHrvatski\nHornjoserbsce\nKreyòl ayisyen\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nInterlingua\nBahasa Indonesia\nIdo\nÍslenska\nItaliano\nᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut\n日本語\nJawa\nქართული\nQaraqalpaqsha\nKabɩyɛ\nҚазақша\nភាសាខ្មែរ\nಕನ್ನಡ\n한국어\nKurdî\nКыргызча\nLatina\nLigure\nລາວ\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nमैथिली\nMalagasy\nMinangkabau\nМакедонски\nമലയാളം\nМонгол\nमराठी\nBahasa Melayu\nမြန်မာဘာသာ\nمازِرونی\nNāhuatl\nPlattdüütsch\nनेपाली\nNederlands\nNorsk nynorsk\nNorsk bokmål\nߒߞߏ\nOccitan\nOromoo\nଓଡ଼ିଆ\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nPolski\nPiemontèis\nپنجابی\nپښتو\nPortuguês\nRuna Simi\nKirundi\nRomână\nРусский\nСаха тыла\nᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ\nSicilianu\nScots\nسنڌي\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nTaclḥit\nසිංහල\nSimple English\nSlovenčina\nSlovenščina\nSoomaaliga\nShqip\nСрпски / srpski\nSunda\nSvenska\nதமிழ்\nತುಳು\nతెలుగు\nTetun\nТоҷикӣ\nไทย\nትግርኛ\nTürkmençe\nTagalog\nTürkçe\nТатарча/tatarça\nئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche\nУкраїнська\nاردو\nOʻzbekcha/ўзбекча\nVèneto\nTiếng Việt\nWest-Vlams\nWalon\nWinaray\n吴语\nმარგალური\nייִדיש\nYorùbá\nZeêuws\n中文\n文言\nBân-lâm-gú\n粵語\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 15. 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{"content":"Google LLC ist ein US-amerikanisches Technologieunternehmen, tätig in den Bereichen Hard- und Softwareentwicklung, mit der Rechtsform Limited Liability Company und mit Hauptsitz im kalifornischen Mountain View. Google LLC ist ein Tochterunternehmen der Holding-Gesellschaft XXVI Holdings Inc; diese gehört dem Unternehmen Alphabet Inc.[1] Bis zum 1. September 2017 trug Google LLC den Namen Google Inc.\nGoogle Inc. wurde vor allem durch die gleichnamige Suchmaschine Google bekannt. Das Unternehmen wurde am 4. September 1998 von Larry Page und Sergey Brin gegründet. Noch am selben Tag brachten sie eine Testversion des Programms auf den Markt und im selben Jahr ging die Suchmaschine offiziell ans Netz. Das Unternehmen bekundet, „die Informationen dieser Welt zu organisieren und allgemein zugänglich und nutzbar zu machen“.[2]\nDie Suchmaschine des Unternehmens erhielt weltweit etwa 73,4 % aller Desktop-Suchanfragen des Internets (Stand: Juni 2018).[3] Die Marke Google gehört seit Jahren zu den wertvollsten Marken der Welt.[4][5]\nGoogle Inc. gehört seit dem 2. Oktober 2015[6] zu Alphabet. Durch eine Umstrukturierung wurden die Google-Aktien in Alphabet-Aktien umgewandelt und das Unternehmen in mehrere Subunternehmen, welche Alphabet Inc. angehören, aufgeteilt.[7][8] Das Kerngeschäft der Online- und Internetdienste wurde unter dem Namen Google fortgeführt. Der vorige Google-Chef Larry Page wechselte zusammen mit Sergey Brin an die Spitze der neu geschaffenen Holding. Die Führung von Google übernahm Sundar Pichai.[9]\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Dienstleistungen\n1.1 Werbedienstleistungen\n1.1.1 Ads\n1.1.2 AdSense\n2 Betriebssysteme\n3 Finanzen\n3.1 Umsatz und Gewinn\n3.2 Steuerproblematik\n3.3 Steueraufkommen in Deutschland\n4 Mitarbeiter\n5 Geschichte\n5.1 Gründung\n5.2 Chronologie\n5.3 Börsenentwicklung\n5.4 Logos\n6 Patente und Gebrauchsmuster\n7 Karitatives Engagement\n8 Standorte\n9 Rechenzentren\n9.1 Nordamerika\n9.2 Südamerika\n9.3 Europa\n9.4 Asien\n9.5 Hardware\n10 Veranstaltungen\n11 Kritik\n12 Literarische und filmische Verarbeitung\n13 Literatur\n14 Weblinks\n15 Einzelnachweise\nDienstleistungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n→ Hauptartikel: Liste der Produkte der Google LLC\nGoogle bietet eine Vielzahl von größtenteils werbefinanzierten kostenlosen Dienstleistungen im World Wide Web an. Dabei handelt es sich vor allem um die Suche auf verschiedenen Datenquellen. Häufig werden neue Einzeldienste ins Angebot aufgenommen, manchmal als Resultat von Unternehmenseinkäufen. Dabei wird eine neue Dienstleistung oft mit dem Zusatz Beta versehen, um anzuzeigen, dass sie noch nicht ausgereift sei. Google wurde dafür kritisiert, dass manche Dienstleistungen den Beta-Status sehr lange behalten.[10] Zudem wurden im Laufe der Zeit zahlreiche Dienste abgeschaltet.[11]\nZu den wichtigsten Diensten zählen:\nGoogle bietet verschiedene Suchmaschinen an.\nTextdokumente im Web – Die bekannteste und meistgenutzte Dienstleistung ist die Volltextsuche von Dokumenten im World Wide Web. Neben dem im Web üblichen HTML-Format durchsucht Google auch andere Dokumenttypen wie PDF, PostScript oder das Doc-Format von Microsoft Word. Ein Faktor bei der Gewichtung der Suchergebnisse ist die Linkpopularität. Der vollständige Algorithmus wird jedoch von Google LLC geheim gehalten, um ein Kopieren der Dienstleistung einerseits und eine irreführende Optimierung kommerzieller oder anderer Seiten auf die Google-Suche andererseits zu erschweren.\nBilddateien im Web – Um nach Bilddateien zu suchen, verwendet Googles Bildersuche Wörter im Dateinamen sowie in HTML-Dokumenten, die Bilder verwenden. Es werden die Grafikformate JPEG, PNG und GIF unterstützt. Eine Suche nach Bildinhalten ist auch möglich.\nProdukte – Mit Google Shopping, ehemals Froogle, kann man nach bei Online-Händlern angebotenen Waren suchen. Insbesondere ist ein Preisvergleich möglich.\nBücher und Wissenschaftliche Werke – Google Books ist ein Suchdienst, mit dem eigene Digitalisate und Onlinebücher im Volltext durchsucht werden können. Google Scholar ist ein ähnlicher Dienst, der auf wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen spezialisiert ist.\nVideos – YouTube ist ein umfangreicher Dienst mit zahlreichen Videos.\nMusik – YouTube Music stellt Musik auf YouTube gesondert zur Verfügung, im Rahmen eines kostenpflichtigen Abonnements auch offline.\nKarten – Der Online-Atlas Google Maps beinhaltet Straßenkarten, bekannte Orte und eine Vielzahl anderer ortsbezogener Informationen. Google bietet eine Programmierschnittstelle, mit der in Websites Karten und Routenplaner integriert werden können. Google Earth ergänzt das Angebot um einen virtuellen Globus.\nNachrichten – Der Inhalt von Nachrichten-Websites wird von Google besonders häufig abgerufen. Unter Google News wird dann auf diese Artikel – gruppiert nach Themen, bestimmten Ereignissen und geordnet nach ihrer Bedeutung – verwiesen. So kann der Leser verschiedene Artikel zu einem Ereignis schnell auffinden.\nE-Mail – Gmail ist Googles E-Mail-Dienst. Man kann seine Mails im Web lesen, per POP3 oder per IMAP mit dem eigenen E-Mail-Programm abholen.\nWebseiten – Google Sites ist ein Webhoster, bei dem man als registrierter Benutzer seine eigene Webseite erstellen und veröffentlichen kann.\nSoziale Netzwerke – Orkut und Buzz standen in Konkurrenz zu anderen Gemeinschaftsportalen bzw. Online-Kontaktnetzwerken wie Facebook und Twitter. Nach dem geringen Erfolg von Buzz wurde es zugunsten des Nachfolgers Google+ eingestellt. Im Jahr 2016 stellte Google außerdem den Dienst Spaces vor. Er dient zum Teilen und Kommentieren von Bildern, Texten und Videos.\nMessaging – Google Hangouts, früher Google Talk, ist ein Messenger zum Austausch von Textnachrichten und Videotelefonie.\nÜbersetzung – Eine automatische Übersetzung zwischen einigen Sprachen wird für Webseiten angeboten.\nOffice-Suite – Mit den Anwendungen Docs, Tabellen und Präsentationen stellt Google ein Office-Paket für Chrome, Android und Apple iOS bereit. Die Applikationen arbeiten eng mit dem Online-Speicher Google Drive zusammen, können neben Dokumenten im Google Format aber auch Microsoft-Office Dateien öffnen. Diese Funktionalität macht auch das für Unternehmen entwickelte G Suite attraktiv. Neben Google Drive können hier auch andere Dienste wie Gmail kostenpflichtig mit erweiterten Funktionen genutzt werden.\nUsenet – Google besitzt mit Google Groups ein umfangreiches Archiv von Newsgroup-Artikeln, welche bis 1981 zurückreichen. In den Beiträgen der verschiedensprachigen Diskussionsforen kann nach Begriffen und Autoren gesucht werden. Die Version 2 ermöglicht außerdem das Anlegen von eigenen Diskussionsforen, allerdings unabhängig vom Usenet.\nBetriebssysteme und Browser – Google bietet die kostenlosen Betriebssysteme Chrome OS und Android sowie den Webbrowser Google Chrome an. Ab 2011 sollte zudem der Android-Ableger Google TV verbreitet werden. 2014 folgte die Einstellung von Google TV und dessen Nachfolger Android TV startete.\nUnternehmen - Für Unternehmen bietet Google die G Suite an. Damit vergibt Google E-Mail-Adressen und Speicherplatz an geschäftliche Kunden. Mit dem Produkt Google My Business können Unternehmen sich in der Google-Suche, in Google Maps und dem ehemaligen Sozialen Netzwerk Google+ präsentieren.\nWerbedienstleistungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAds[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle verkauft für beliebige Suchbegriffe das Einblenden gesponserter Links im Rahmen seines Google-Ads-Programms. Diese reine Textwerbung ist optisch speziell hervorgehoben, so dass der Benutzer sie von den eigentlichen Suchergebnissen unterscheiden kann. Auf diese Weise wird Werbung angezeigt, die inhaltlich zur Suchanfrage passt und somit den werbenden AdWords-Kunden mit der Benutzerklientel zusammenbringt, die mit höherer Wahrscheinlichkeit an seinen Produkten und Dienstleistungen interessiert ist. Der Kunde legt die maximale Vergütung pro Klick selbst fest, wobei eine höhere Vergütung eine höhere Position gegenüber konkurrierenden Anzeigen erzielen kann.\nAdSense[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nZusätzlich entstehen Gewinne durch das Google AdSense-Partnerprogramm. Dies ist eine kontextabhängige Werbung, die Webmaster auf ihren Webseiten einbinden können. Hierüber können seit Mai 2004 auch grafische Werbebanner in vier Standardgrößen platziert werden. Seit Juni 2005 können die Kunden über das „Site Targeting“ außerdem gezielt auf bestimmten Seiten werben, statische und animierte Werbebanner einsetzen und diese über die Zahl der Abrufe bezahlen. Bislang war nur eine Bezahlung pro Klick möglich.\nGoogle behält sich eine Deaktivierung eines AdSense-Kontos ohne Angabe von Gründen vor.\nGoogle hat geäußert, sich nicht auf die Werbung im Internet beschränken, sondern mittel- und langfristig am Werbemarkt insgesamt partizipieren zu wollen. Angestrebt wird, AdSense zu einem medienübergreifenden Werbenetzwerk, in das neben der Internetwerbung auch die klassischen Medien Print, Radio und Fernsehen einbezogen sind, auszubauen. Hintergrund ist die Befürchtung, dass Google ohne neue Umsatzquellen bald an Grenzen für die weitere Expansion stoßen könnte. 95 Prozent der weltweiten Werbeumsätze werden nach wie vor in den klassischen Medien getätigt.\nGoogle hat insbesondere in den USA bereits vielfältige Aktivitäten entwickelt. So bestehen Kooperationen und Pilotprojekte mit Presse- und Radiounternehmen, um den Einsatz der Google-Werbekonzepte auch in diesen Sektoren zu testen. Im digitalen, rückkanalfähigen Fernsehen hofft Google, ein Werbeinstrument lancieren zu können, das eine individuelle Werbeansprache der Zuschauer ermöglicht, was als wesentliche Innovation im Werbefernsehen angesehen würde. Auch bei mobilen Datendiensten möchte Google sein AdSense-System durchsetzen.[12]\nBetriebssysteme[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas auf Linux basierende Android[13] ist mit einem Marktanteil von 74,6 % das erfolgreichste mobile Betriebssystem der Welt.[14] Es ist offener als der nächst größte Konkurrent iOS von Apple und es gibt weitaus mehr unterschiedliche Geräte mit dem Betriebssystem.[15]\nIm Segment Smartwatch sind sie mit ihrem Betriebssystem Wear OS vertreten, der Marktanteil ist hier jedoch weit hinter WatchOS (Apple); auch die Hersteller Samsung und Huawei nutzen Wear OS nicht.[16][17]\nFinanzen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nUmsatz und Gewinn[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGeschäftszahlen\nJahr\nUmsatz\nin Mio. Dollar\nGewinn\nin Mio. Dollar\n2017[18] 110.855 12.662\n2016[18] 90.272 19.478\n2015[19] 74.989 16.348\n2014 66.001 14.136\n2013 55.519 12.920\n2012 46.039 10.737\n2011 37.905 9.737\n2010 29.321 8.505\n2009 23.648 6.519\n2008 21.795 4.282\n2007 16.503 4.203\n2006 10.604 3.078\n2005 6.139 1.465\n2004 3.200 399,1\n2003 961,9 105,6\n2002 347,8 99,7\n2001 86,4 7,0\n2000 19,1 −14,7\nSeit seiner Gründung hat Google seinen Umsatz und Gewinn deutlich gesteigert, siehe Tabelle. 2010 erzielte es einen Umsatz von 29,3 Milliarden US-Dollar und machte einen Gewinn von 8,5 Milliarden US-Dollar. Den größten Teil der Einnahmen nahmen dabei die Werbedienste mit 28,236 Milliarden US-Dollar ein. Weitere Einnahmen erfolgten unter anderem durch Lizenzierungen. 66 % der Einnahmen erfolgten über Google-Webseiten, 30 % über Google-Network-Seiten und 4 % über andere Quellen. Im vierten Quartal 2012 belief sich der Umsatz der Google Inc. auf 14.419 Millionen US-Dollar.[20]\nSteuerproblematik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle operiert größtenteils in Industrieländern. Um die dort geltenden Steuern auf Gewinne zu umgehen, transferiert Google Gewinne mittels Verrechnungspreisen über Irland in die Niederlande und anschließend nach Bermuda. Dadurch zahlte Google in den Jahren 2007 bis 2009 auf seine Gewinne außerhalb der USA nur einen effektiven Steuersatz von 2,4 % und umging in diesem Zeitraum Steuerzahlungen in Höhe von ungefähr 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar.[21] 2010 betrug der effektive Steuersatz laut einer Schätzung rund 3 %.[22] In den USA selbst betrug um das Jahr der effektive Steuersatz auf die ausgewiesenen Gewinne 22,4 %. Googles Steuervermeidung ist oft kritisiert worden; ebenso Regierungen, die Steuerschlupflöcher nicht stopfen.[21][23]\n2016 transferierte Google rund 16 Milliarden Euro nach Bermuda und 2017 fast 20 Milliarden Euro.[24]\nSteueraufkommen in Deutschland[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGemäß Angaben des Konzerns im Bundesanzeiger zahlte die Google Germany GmbH (Hauptsitz in Hamburg) im Jahr 2014 Einkommen- und Ertragsteuern in Höhe von 12,9 Millionen Euro. Der Umsatz für Deutschland wurde mit 279 Millionen Euro angegeben und ein Bruttogewinn von 22 Millionen Euro ausgewiesen. Laut Angaben der Frankfurter Allgemeinen Zeitung schätzt die VG Media den Jahresumsatz auf bis zu 5 Milliarden Euro. Laut dem Geschäftsbericht dient die Tochtergesellschaft in Deutschland „im Wesentlichen als Servicegesellschaft“ für die Niederlassungen Google Ireland Ltd in Dublin und für den Hauptsitz in den USA. Die Gewinne werden dort und nicht in Deutschland zu anderen Konditionen versteuert.[25]\nMitarbeiter[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle beschäftigt 102.000 Arbeitnehmer (Stand 2019). Außerdem arbeiten weitere 121.000 Mitarbeiter – also mehr als die Stammbelegschaft – als Werkvertragsnehmer und Zeitarbeiter für Google (Stand 2019).[26] In der Schweiz arbeiten mehr als 3000 Menschen für Google (Stand 2019).[27]\nNach anhaltenden Konflikten mit dem Management gründeten 230 Beschäftigte Anfang 2021 die Interessenvertretung Alphabet Workers Union.[28][29] Der CWA-Ableger steht Beschäftigten aller Unternehmen von Alphabet Inc. offen.[30]\nGeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLarry Page (2009)\nGründung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n1995 begegneten sich Larry Page und Sergey Brin an der Stanford University.[31] Sie konzipierten die Suchmaschine BackRub,[32] einen Google-Vorläufer. Sie wurde nach den Backlinks benannt, die zur Bestimmung der Wertigkeit einer Webseite analysiert werden.[33] Im Jahr 1998 äußerten Internetportale jedoch Desinteresse an der entwickelten Suchtechnik. Im August 1998 stellte der Investor Andreas von Bechtolsheim nach einer zehnminütigen Präsentation der Suchmaschine einen Scheck über 100.000 US-Dollar aus.[34] Da Bechtolsheim annahm, die Firma heiße „Google“, setzte er als Empfänger „Google Inc.“ ein. Ein solches Unternehmen existierte aber bis dahin nicht.[35] Larry Page und Sergey Brin ließen das Unternehmen unter diesem Namen registrieren, damit der Scheck eingelöst werden konnte.[36] Die Herkunft des Namens „Google“ ist außerdem auf die unter dem englischen Namen „googol“ bekannte (sehr große) Zahl 10 100 {\\displaystyle 10^{100}} zurückzuführen.[37] In einer Garage[38] gründeten sie am 4. September 1998 in Menlo Park die Google Inc. Mit einem Startkapital von 1.100.000 US-Dollar, aufgebracht von den Familien, Freunden und Andy Bechtolsheim, entwickelten und veröffentlichten sie die erste Testversion des Programms. Fünf Monate später bezog Google Inc. mit acht Angestellten ein Büro in Palo Alto. Etwa 500.000 Suchanfragen wurden nun täglich verzeichnet. Nachdem seit September 1999 (laut Google erst Mai 2002[39]) AOL und Netscape mit Google zusammenarbeiteten, versechsfachten sich die Suchanfragen. Ein Grund für den ersten Erfolg von Google war, dass andere Suchmaschinen, vor allem AltaVista, bei der Suche nicht schlechter waren, jedoch 1999 ihre Seiten zu umfangreichen Webportalen ausbauten. Bei den damals noch üblichen langsamen Internet-Verbindungen hatte die einfach aufgebaute Google-Seite deutliche Vorteile.[40][41]\nChronologie[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nEntwicklung bis zum Börsengang 2004\nAm 21. September 1999 wurde offiziell die Testphase der Google Websuche beendet und der „beta“-Hinweis von der Webseite entfernt.\nEnde des zweiten Quartals 2000 war Google Marktführer auf dem Gebiet der Suchmaschinen mit mehr als einer Milliarde Seiten im Index.\nIm Jahr 2001 wurde Eric Schmidt zum ersten CEO ernannt.\nIm Februar 2001 übernahm Google das Usenet-Archiv von Deja News und startete seine eigene Usenet-Suche Google Groups.[42]\nIm Februar 2003 übernahm Google die Blogging-Plattform Blogger.com des Unternehmens Pyra Labs, das zu dieser Zeit schon hunderttausende Nutzer zählte.[43]\nIm April 2003 kaufte Google das Unternehmen Applied Semantics, Inc. und integrierte die erworbene Technik später in Google AdSense. Applied Semantics hatte zuvor für Kunden wie Overture mit Hilfe einer KeyWordSense genannten Technik die semantische Bedeutung einer Webseite erkannt und gezielte Werbeeinblendungen ermöglicht.[44] Im Juni 2003 begann Google sein AdSense-Werbeprogramm, im Rahmen dessen auf teilnehmenden Websites themenrelevante Werbeanzeigen eingeblendet werden.\n2004\nGoogle übernahm das Unternehmen Where2 LLC. Später entwickelte sich hieraus Google Maps.\nAm 1. April offerierte Google die Beta-Version des kostenlosen E-Mail-Services Gmail mit 1 GB Speicherplatz je Nutzer.\nAm 13. Juli gab Google die Übernahme von Picasa, LLC bekannt, aus deren Entwicklung später das Produkt Google Picasa wurde.[45]\nAm 14. Oktober stellte das Unternehmen seine Google Desktop Search vor, ein Programm zum Durchsuchen der Datenbestände des eigenen Rechners.\nAm 27. Oktober wurde der Kauf der Keyhole Corp. bekanntgegeben. Keyhole legte den Grundstein für Google Earth.[46]\n2005\nAm 28. März übernahm Google die Urchin Software Corp. Später entstand daraus das Produkt Google Analytics.[47]\nAm 11. Mai gab Google die Übernahme von Dodgeball, einem mobilen sozialen Netzwerk, bekannt.[48] Hieraus wird später der Dienst Google Latitude.[48][49]\nIm August wurde der Kauf von Android Inc. bekanntgegeben.[50] 2008 veröffentlichte Google die erste Version des Android-Betriebssystems für Mobilgeräte.\nAm 21. Dezember gab Google den Erwerb von 5 % der Aktien von AOL Time Warner bekannt.\nIm Jahr 2005 wurde Google Inc. erstmals auf der Forbes-Liste geführt, es gelang auf Anhieb der Sprung auf Platz 38. Der Unternehmenswert wurde auf etwa 55 Milliarden US-Dollar geschätzt.\n2006\nAm 9. März übernahm der Konzern die Start-Up-Firma Upstartle, LLC mit deren Produkt Writely. Später entstand hieraus und aus den Technologien der 2007 erworbenen Unternehmen Tonic Systems[51] und Zenter[52] Google Docs (heute: Google Drive).\nAm 14. März kaufte Google das Unternehmen @Last Software zur Integration von 3D-Skizzen in Google Earth.[53] Das Produkt nennt sich später Google SketchUp.\nAm 29. Juni startete Google das Bezahlsystem Google Checkout.\nAm 30. August startete Google seinen Service Google Books für das Herunterladen nicht mehr urheberrechtlich geschützter Bücher.\nAm 9. Oktober übernahm Google für 1,65 Mrd. US-Dollar das Internet-Videoportal YouTube.[54]\nAm 1. November kaufte Google die Wiki-Start-Up-Firma JotSpot Inc. Später wurde hieraus Google Sites.[55]\n2007\nSergey Brin (2005)\nGoogle durfte nach einem Gerichtsurteil vom 14. Februar 2007 in Belgien die Artikel nationaler Tageszeitungen nicht mehr veröffentlichen und musste 3,45 Mio. Euro Geldstrafe bezahlen.[56]\nIm März 2007 wurde die von dem Schweden Hans Rosling entwickelte Software Trendalyzer (früher Gapminder genannt) durch Übernahme des gleichnamigen Unternehmens erworben. Mit Trendalyzer ist es möglich, statistische Werte zu visualisieren. Einige Komponenten der Software wurden für die allgemeine Benutzung durch die Visualisierungsschnittstelle zur Anwendungsprogrammierung (Google Visualization API) verfügbar.[57]\nAm 13. April 2007 übernahm Google das Online-Werbenetzwerk DoubleClick, Inc., einen der größten Online-Werbevermarkter, für 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar und überbot damit unter anderem die Mitbieter Microsoft und Yahoo.[58] Die DoubleClick-Technik wurde später in Google AdWords integriert. Google dominiert damit den Markt für Onlinewerbung mit 80 % Marktanteil; die Konkurrenzunternehmen Microsoft und AT&T appellierten deshalb an die Kartellbehörden.[59]\nAm 23. April war Google Schätzungen zufolge die wertvollste Marke der Welt vor General Electric, Microsoft und Coca-Cola.[60] Drei Tage darauf konnte Google auf die meisten Besucher im Internet vor Microsoft, Yahoo, Time Warner, eBay und Wikipedia verweisen.[61]\nAm 30. Mai kaufte der Konzern Panoramio, ein Start-Up-Unternehmen, das sich auf die Verbreitung geolokaler Digitalfotos spezialisiert hatte. Diese Fotos können nun in Google Earth und Google Maps angezeigt werden.\nAm 3. Juli übernahm das Unternehmen den kalifornischen Telefondienstleister GrandCentral Communications. Hieraus entstand das VoIP-Produkt Google Voice.[62]\n2008\nIm März präsentierte Google seinen Dienst für elektronische Patientenakten namens Google Health.\nAm 23. Juli ging mit Knol ein Wissensportal in die öffentliche Testphase.\nIm September wurde ein von Google entwickelter Browser namens Google Chrome vorgestellt.\nGoogle wurde exklusiver Sponsor eines Satelliten namens GeoEye-1, der aktuelle hochauflösende Satellitenfotos für Google Earth und Google Maps liefert.[63][64] Beim Start des Satelliten waren die beiden Google-Gründer Larry Page und Sergey Brin anwesend.[65]\n2009\nSeit März können Werbekunden von Google über Interest Based Ads mittels interessenbasierter Anzeigen (siehe Targeted Advertising) Konsumenten gezielter ansprechen.[66][67][68]\nAm 31. März 2009 startete Google eine eigene Beteiligungsgesellschaft mit einem Risikokapital in Höhe von 100 Millionen US-Dollar, um dieses in erfolgversprechende Start-Up-Unternehmen aus allen Wirtschaftsteilen zu investieren. Der Schwerpunkt der Finanzinvestments liegt laut Aussage der Google-Ventures-Managing-Partner Rich Miner und Bill Maris in den Bereichen Software, Umwelttechnik, Biotechnologie, Gesundheitswesen und Internettechnologien für Verbraucher.[69][70][71]\nIm Mai 2009 wurde mit Google Wave ein internetbasiertes System zur Kommunikation und Zusammenarbeit in Echtzeit vorgestellt. Die Entwickler stammen aus der Firmenübernahme von Where2 LLC aus dem Jahr 2004, aus dem Google Maps entstand.\nIm Juni wurde Google Squared veröffentlicht, eine experimentelle Suchmaschine, die Suchergebnisse im Tabellenformat liefert und versucht, automatisch Struktur in unstrukturierte Daten aus dem Web zu bringen.[72][73]\nMit Google Chrome OS wurde ein für Computer konzipiertes Betriebssystem vorgestellt, das auf dem Linux-Kernel basiert und den integrierten Webbrowser Google Chrome als Hauptplattform für Webanwendungen nutzt. Google Chrome OS wurde wie Android als Open Source verfügbar gemacht.[74]\nGoogle Book Search strebte in den USA eine rechtliche Einigung über Copyright-Verletzungen bei eingescannten Büchern an. Gleichzeitig sollte darüber die bisherige Praxis der Copyright-Verletzung legalisiert werden und eine Nutzungsvereinbarung mit weltweit allen Buchautoren und Rechteinhabern getroffen werden, sofern sie dem Vergleichsvorschlag, dessen Einspruchsfrist der 8. September 2009 war, nicht widersprechen (siehe Google Book Settlement).\nAm 16. September 2009 gab Google bekannt, den führenden Captcha-Spezialisten reCAPTCHA übernommen zu haben. Damit ergab sich für Google die Möglichkeit, die eigenen Aktivitäten zur Digitalisierung von Handschriften und Büchern, z. B. im Rahmen von Google Bücher, zu unterstützen.\n2010\nIm Januar 2010 wurde das Mittelklasse-Smartphone Nexus vorgestellt, ein Vorläufer der Pixel-Reihe.[75]\nAm 9. Februar veröffentlichte das Unternehmen Google Buzz, einen Dienst zum Austausch von Nachrichten und Kommentaren.\n2011\nSeit Februar bietet das Google Art Project die Möglichkeit, virtuelle Rundgänge durch bedeutende internationale Kunstmuseen zu unternehmen und ausgewählte Kunstwerke in sehr hoher Auflösung und mit Zoomfunktion zu betrachten. Zusätzliche Informationen zu den Werken und Künstlern werden am Bildrand eingeblendet.[76]\nEnde März wurde der Dienst Google+ vorgestellt. Ähnlich dem Gefällt mir-Button von Facebook können Nutzer Suchergebnisse und Anzeigen mit dem +1-Button markieren, um andere Nutzer auf dieses Ergebnis aufmerksam zu machen.\nGoogle startet in Amerika Google Fiber. Erste Nutzer in Kansas City (Kansas) und Kansas City (Missouri) können mit der entsprechenden Netzwerk-Box einen Internetanschluss mit bis zu 1 Gbit/s Download und Upload erhalten, sowie bis zu 173 Fernsehkanäle empfangen.[77]\nIm August kündigte Google an, die Mobilfunksparte Motorola Mobility von Motorola für 12,5 Milliarden US-Dollar zu übernehmen.[78] Anfang 2014 wird die Marke Motorola für 2,9 Milliarden US-Dollar an Lenovo verkauft.[79]\nIm September gab Google die Übernahme vom Couponing-Portal DailyDeal und von Zagat Survey bekannt.[80] Der 1979 gegründete Restaurantführer soll das Angebot Google Places ergänzen.\n2011 steigerte Google seine Ausgaben für Lobbying deutlich. Von April bis Juni 2011 investierte Google in den USA 2,1 Millionen US-Dollar in die Einflussnahme, 2010 im selben Zeitraum dagegen 1,34 Millionen US-Dollar.[81] Als Hintergrund werden Schritte der Federal Trade Commission angesehen, evtl. eine Untersuchung über Googles Vormachtstellung im Internet anzustrengen.[82]\n2012\nGoogle hat sich im Rahmen des newTLD-Programms bei der ICANN um die Vergabe zahlreicher neuer Top-Level-Domains beworben. Dazu gehören unter anderem .google, .youtube, .docs, .lol, .blog, .chrome und .gmail sowie .store.[83] Mit insgesamt 101 Anträgen ist Google Spitzenreiter vor Amazon.[84] Google firmiert unter den Bewerbungen allerdings als „Charleston Road Registry Inc.“, eine Tochtergesellschaft von Google, die nur für die Vergabe neuer TLDs gegründet wurde.[85] Im Oktober 2012 wurde bekannt, dass das Unternehmen drei seiner Bewerbungen zurückgezogen hat, da diese nicht den Richtlinien der ICANN entsprochen haben.[86]\nIm Juni 2012 hat Google den Messengerdienst meebo gekauft.[87] Einige Funktionen des Dienstes wurden in Google-Produkte integriert.\nGoogle hat in Kooperation mit der Stiftung Entrepreneurship und Indiegogo die sogenannte Gründer-Garage ins Leben gerufen. Auf einer Onlineplattform können Existenzgründer aus Deutschland an kostenlosen Kursen teilnehmen und sich um eine Finanzierung durch die Projektpartner bewerben. Dabei setzt Google unter anderem auch auf Crowdfunding.[88]\nIm September 2012 gab Google die Übernahme des deutschen Unternehmens Nik Software bekannt. Diese ist vor allem für ihre iOS-App Snapseed bekannt, die Instagram sehr ähnelt. Die Akquisition wird gemeinhin als Angriff auf Facebook gesehen, das Instagram im April 2012 erworben und in zahlreiche eigene Dienste integriert hat.[89]\nIm November 2012 wurde Ingress vorgestellt, zunächst in Form einer geschlossenen Beta-Version. Das Spiel dreht sich um eine virtuelle Welt, die teilweise (je nach erreichtem Level) mit der echten Welt verschmelzen soll. Ingress wurde als erstes Alternative-Reality-Spiel für Smartphones überhaupt eingestuft und erfuhr daher eine breite mediale Beachtung. Entwickler ist John Hanke, ehemaliger Leiter der Abteilung für Geodaten bei Google.[90]\nIm Dezember 2012 wurde das Programm Google Business Photos gestartet. Teilnehmende Unternehmen können von ausgewählten Fotografen professionelle Bilder der jeweiligen Niederlassung und deren Räumlichkeiten erstellen lassen, die anschließend als Galerie auf Google veröffentlicht werden. Das Angebot ist eng mit Google Maps und Google+ Local verknüpft, wo Unternehmen bereits eigene Profile hinterlegen können.[91]\n2013\nIm Februar trat Google als eines der ersten Unternehmen der FIDO-Allianz bei, die den Industriestandard Universal Second Factor (U2F) für eine allgemein anwendbare Zwei-Faktor-Authentifizierung entwickelt hat.\nDas Chromebook Pixel wurde am 21. Februar in San Francisco vorgestellt.[92] Im Vergleich zu früheren Chromebooks zeichnet es sich vor allem durch seinen hochauflösenden Bildschirm mit Touchscreen aus, außerdem kann optional ein LTE-Modul konfiguriert werden. Das Notebook wurde zunächst über Google Play im Vereinigten Königreich und den Vereinigten Staaten verkauft.[93]\nIm März des Jahres veröffentlichte Google unter dem Namen Google Keep einen Dienst zur Verwaltung von Notizen und Aufgaben.[94] Zu Beginn stand neben einer webbasierten Oberfläche nur eine Anwendung für Android zur Verfügung, später sollen laut Google auch andere Plattformen abgedeckt werden. Der Dienst steht in direkter Konkurrenz zu Evernote, Wunderlist und Microsoft OneNote.[95]\nAnfang April stellte Google den Kontoinaktivität-Manager vor. Mit seiner Hilfe können Nutzer festlegen, was mit ihrem Google-Konto geschehen soll, wenn es nicht mehr genutzt wird und der Inhaber beispielsweise verstorben ist. In diesem Fall wird es nach einem festgelegten Zeitraum an Dritte übergeben und ggf. komplett gelöscht.[96] Ob Inaktivität vorliegt oder nicht, entscheidet Google anhand diverser Faktoren, etwa der Nutzung des Android-Handys oder des Webprotokolls.[97]\nIm Juni gab Google Project Loon bekannt: Mit Hilfe untereinander vernetzter Heißluftballons möchte das Unternehmen Gegenden mit einem Internetzugang versorgen, die bisher nicht anderweitig erreicht werden. In Canterbury (Neuseeland) wurde ein Testlauf mit 30 modifizierten Wetterballons durchgeführt, der nach eigenen Angaben eine Übertragungsrate vergleichbar mit UMTS erreichte und 50 Haushalte dauerhaft versorgen soll.[98]\nEnde 2013 übernahm Google das Unternehmen Boston Dynamics, das Robotiksysteme für das US-Militär entwickelt.[99]\n2014\nIm Januar 2014 übernahm Google mit Deep Mind einen Spezialisten für Künstliche Intelligenz.[100]\nAnfang 2014 kaufte Google den Thermostat- und Feuermelderhersteller Nest Labs.[101]\nIm April 2014 übernahm Google Titan Aerospace. Das Unternehmen stellt Spezialdrohnen her, die in großer Höhe satellitentypische Funktionen ausüben.[102]\nIm Juni 2014 kaufte Google das Unternehmen Skybox Imaging, ein Raumfahrtunternehmen, das hochauflösende Satellitenfotografie anbietet.[103]\nSeit November 2014 hat Google das Moffett Federal Airfield, im Silicon Valley zwischen San Francisco und San José gelegen, für 60 Jahre von der NASA gemietet. Die Miete für die gesamte Zeit beträgt 1,16 Milliarden US-Dollar.[104] Google möchte das Gelände für Tests im Bereich Luft- und Raumfahrt sowie Robotik nutzen.[105]\n2015\nFirmenstruktur der Alphabet Inc. 2015\nSeit August 2015 gehört die Google Inc. durch eine Umstrukturierung zu der neu gegründeten Holding-Dachgesellschaft Alphabet Inc., die von Larry Page und Sergey Brin geleitet wird. Diverse Tochterunternehmen und Abteilungen, darunter Calico, Nest Labs, X, Google Fiber, Google Capital und Google Ventures, werden aus Google Inc. ausgegliedert und direkt Alphabet untergeordnet.\n2016\nEnde 2016 startete Google die Handy-Serie Pixel als Nachfolge der Nexus-Smartphones.[106][107]\n2017\nIm März 2017 kaufte Google das Data-Science-Portal Kaggle.[108]\nIm September 2017 kaufte Google Teile des Smartphone-Herstellers HTC für 1,1 Milliarden US-Dollar. In diesem Deal sind auch die Rechte von HTC inbegriffen.[109]\nAm 1. September 2017 gab Google Inc. ihre Umbenennung in Google LLC bekannt.[110]\n2018\nIm März 2018 gab Google den Kauf der größten GIF-Suchmaschine Tenor bekannt, welche dadurch einzug in Google-Apps und Features erhielt.[111]\n2019\nAm 1. November 2019 gab Google bekannt, Fitbit für 2,1 Milliarden US-Dollar zu übernehmen.[112]\nBörsenentwicklung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nAm 29. April 2004 verkündete das Unternehmen den Gang an die US-Börse. Die Online-Registrierung für den Börsengang (IPO), von dem man sich einen Erlös von 3,3 Milliarden US-Dollar erhoffte, begann am 1. August. Der ursprünglich geplante Ausgabepreis von 108 bis 135 US-Dollar je Aktie musste auf 80 bis 85 US-Dollar gesenkt werden, bevor die Aktie am 19. August 2004 zum ersten Mal in den Handel kam. Bereits am ersten Handelstag stieg der Kurs auf über 100 US-Dollar und machte damit Larry Page und Sergey Brin, die jeder etwa 38 Millionen Aktien hielten, zu Multimilliardären.\nAm 18. November 2005 kletterte die Aktie über die 400-US-Dollar-Marke. Bei 179.123.000 ausgegebenen Aktien hatte Google damit einen Marktwert von 112 Milliarden US-Dollar. Aufgrund des hohen Börsenkurses übertraf Google große Konzerne wie Coca-Cola, IBM, Cisco oder Time Warner. Die Google-Gründer befanden sich nun in den Top 20 der reichsten Menschen der USA.[113]\nAm 24. Oktober 2006 überstieg der Google-Marktwert 150 Milliarden US-Dollar. Damit war Google weit mehr wert als das Branchenschwergewicht IBM.[114][115] Die Aktie des Unternehmens kletterte am 22. November 2006 über die 500-US-Dollar-Marke. Bei 179.123.000 ausgegebenen Aktien hatte Google damit einen Marktwert von 156 Milliarden US-Dollar. Damit rangierte Google auf Platz 14 der US-Unternehmen und weltweit auf Platz 3 der IT-Unternehmen.[116]\nAm 19. Oktober 2007 kletterte Googles Marktwert auf über 200 Milliarden US-Dollar.[117] Damit rangierte Google auf Platz 2 hinter Microsoft (293 Milliarden US-Dollar) der weltweiten IT-Unternehmen[118] und auf Platz 10 aller US-Unternehmen.[119] Die Aktie war am 31. Oktober 2007 innerhalb von drei Wochen von 600 US-Dollar auf 700 US-Dollar gestiegen, der Marktwert lag damit bei 220 Milliarden US-Dollar. Google zog so 2007 an Procter & Gamble (218 Milliarden US-Dollar), der Bank of America (214 Milliarden US-Dollar) und dem weltgrößten Automobilhersteller Toyota (204 Milliarden US-Dollar) vorbei.[120]\nInsgesamt gibt es 313 Millionen Aktien von Google LLC. Der Wert der Aktie lag Anfang 2007 bei mehr als 500 US-Dollar. Ende 2007 erreichte die Aktie ein Allzeithoch von über 700 US-Dollar.[121] Der Börsenwert betrug am 17. März 2008 rund 84 Milliarden US-Dollar; der Börsenkurs lag an diesem Tag bei etwa 268 US-Dollar pro Aktie. Das zweite Quartal 2012 war sehr erfolgreich und der Gewinn betrug 2,8 Milliarden Dollar, bei einem Aktienkurs von 550 Euro.[122]\nLogos[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas Logo ist der Firmenname „Google“, geschrieben in vier Farben: blau für die beiden Buchstaben „G“ und „g“, rot für das „o“ und „e“, gelb für das zweite „o“ und grün für das „l“. Die Schriftart – Catull (verwendet für das Logo von 1999 bis 31. August 2015) – wurde 1982 von Gustav Jäger für die H. Berthold AG gestaltet.[123] Das Logo wurde einige Male leicht verändert. Mit dem Logo ab 1. September 2015 verabschiedet sich Google von den Serifen und verwendet „Product Sans“ als neue Schriftart.[124]\nErstes Logo\n(September 1998)\nZweites Logo (1998)\nDrittes Logo bis 1999\nViertes Logo bis\nzum 5. Mai 2010\nFünftes Logo bis zum 19. September 2013\nSechstes Logo bis\nzum 31. August 2015\nSiebtes Logo seit\ndem 1. September 2015\nAm 27. September 2019 widmete sich Google selbst ein Google-Doodle zum „21. Geburtstag von Google“.\nPatente und Gebrauchsmuster[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nUm das umfassende Produktportfolio zu schützen, meldete Google im Jahr 2007 595 Patente und Gebrauchsmuster an. Durch die Akquisition von Motorola Mobility und weiteren Unternehmen ist davon auszugehen, dass die Zahl der Patente, welche im Besitz von Google sind, deutlich höher ist.\nKaritatives Engagement[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nMit Google.org besteht abseits des eigentlichen Unternehmens, der Google LLC, seit 2005 eine karitative Einrichtung, welche als „philanthropischer Arm von Google“ bezeichnet wird.[125] Das Startkapital betrug 1 Milliarde Dollar. Ihr Ziel ist es, gewinnbringend in verschiedene vorhandene Projekte zu investieren, aber auch eigene Unternehmungen anzugehen. Google.org will vor allem Bereiche wie globale Armut, Energie und Umweltschutz abdecken. Zu den bekanntesten Projekten zählt die Google Vermisstensuche und die geplante Mitentwicklung eines Hybridautos. Derzeitiger Direktor ist der Arzt und Epidemiologe Larry Brilliant, Gründer und Leiter der Seva Foundation.\nStandorte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas Googleplex\nDas Unternehmen hat seine Zentrale, das Googleplex, in Mountain View im Silicon Valley, wo das Unternehmen auch gegründet wurde. Daneben unterhält Google viele Zweigniederlassungen in der ganzen Welt. Die Zentrale für das Geschäft in EMEA befindet sich in Dublin am Grand Canal Dock. Andere Standorte sind in Europa neben Dänemark, Polen, Tschechien, der Schweiz (Entwicklungszentrum in Zürich seit 2004; damals noch mit einem Zweipersonenbüro, 2021 mit über 4000 Angestellten das größte Entwicklungszentrum in Europa[126][127]), Frankreich und den Niederlanden auch in Deutschland in Hamburg (Zentrale von Google Germany in der ABC-Straße) und München eingerichtet worden.[128]\nIm Februar 2011 wurde bekannt gegeben, dass in Berlin ein neues Forschungsinstitut aufgebaut werden soll.[129] Anlässlich der Gründungsveranstaltung erläuterte Googles Rechtsvorstand David Drummond in einem Gastbeitrag für Zeit Online, welche Absichten der Konzern bei diesem Engagement verfolgt: „[Wir möchten] die Interaktion zwischen Internet, Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft besser verstehen. Wir benötigen dazu die Hilfe von wissenschaftlichen Experten […] Wenn wir sicherstellen möchten, dass Forschung auch in Zukunft auf einer nachhaltigen Grundlage basiert und ihren Platz auf der Agenda der Entscheidungsträger behält, dann muss die Öffentlichkeit stärker einbezogen werden.“ (25. Okt. 2011[130])\nRechenzentren[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle Data Center in The Dalles, Oregon. Im Vordergrund die Hochspannungsanlage zur Stromversorgung\nGoogle LLC betreibt weltweit eine Reihe von Rechenzentren, die jeweils die komplette Funktionalität der Suchmaschine enthalten. Eine Benutzeranfrage wird, gesteuert durch das Domain Name System, im Idealfall an das netztopologisch nächste Rechenzentrum – nicht immer mit dem geografisch nächstgelegenen identisch – geleitet und von ihm beantwortet. Fällt ein Rechenzentrum ganz aus, übernimmt ein anderes seine Aufgaben.\nDie Standorte sind derzeit:[131]\nNordamerika[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nBerkeley County, USA-South Carolina South Carolina\nCouncil Bluffs, USA-Iowa Iowa\nThe Dalles, USA-Oregon Oregon\nDouglas County, USA-Georgia Georgia\nHenderson, USA-Nevada Nevada\nJackson County, USA-Alabama Alabama\nLenoir, USA-North Carolina North Carolina\nLoudoun County, USA-Virginia Virginia\nMayes County, USA-Oklahoma Oklahoma\nMidlothian, USA-Texas Texas\nSüdamerika[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nQuilicura, Chile Chile\nEuropa[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDublin, Irland Irland\nEemshaven, Niederlande Niederlande\nFredericia, Danemark Dänemark\nHamina, Finnland Finnland\nSaint-Ghislain, Belgien Belgien\nAsien[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLandkreis Changhua, Taiwan Taiwan\nSingapur Singapur\nDie Errichtung von Rechenzentren in Asien wurde von Beobachtern als Zeichen gewertet, dass Google dort ein großes Wachstum erwartet.[132]\nGoogle hebt hervor, dass das Unternehmen seit 2007, vor allem durch Erwerb von Emissionsausgleichskontingenten, CO2-neutral arbeitet.[133][134][135]\nHardware[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nErstes Google-Serverrack, ausgestellt im Computer History Museum\nJedes Rechenzentrum besteht aus einem Rechnerverbund (Cluster). Die verwendeten Rechner sind IBM-kompatible Personal Computer, bestehen also aus preiswerten Standardkomponenten. Hier kommt das selbstentwickelte Google File System zum Einsatz, eine verteilte Architektur, bei der alle Daten mehrfach redundant auf verschiedenen Geräten gespeichert sind. Ist einer der Rechner oder nur eine Festplatte eines Rechners ausgefallen, werden die entsprechenden Daten von einer anderen Stelle im Cluster auf einen Ersatzrechner kopiert, und die ausgefallene Hardware-Komponente kann im laufenden Betrieb ausgetauscht werden, ohne dass Ausfälle entstehen. Das Gesamtsystem ist skalierbar, d. h., dass nach Bedarf weitere Rechner und Festplatten hinzugefügt werden können.\nMan schätzt, dass Google über etwa eine Million Server verfügt (2011).[136]\nVeranstaltungen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nGoogle veranstaltet jährlich den Google Summer of Code und hilft dabei innovativen Softwareprojekten u. a. finanziell. Außerdem sponsert Google die AI Challenge, einen Programmierwettbewerb im Bereich künstlicher Intelligenz. Zudem werden jedes Jahr mehrere Entwicklerkonferenzen abgehalten. Dazu gehören die Google I/O und der Summer of Code.\nKritik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n→ Hauptartikel: Kritik an der Google LLC\nGoogle steht im Umgang mit dem Datenschutz öfter in der Kritik. Zu weiteren Kritikpunkten am Unternehmen gehören stattfindende Filterung aus der Ergebnisliste der Suchmaschine, der Umgang mit der Konkurrenz, Urheberrechtsverletzungen, Steuerflucht und eine Quasi-Monopolstellung. Weiterhin beteiligt sich Google seit 2017 am Militärprojekt Maven des US-Verteidigungsministeriums zur automatisierten Zielerfassung mittels künstlicher Intelligenz.[137]\nLiterarische und filmische Verarbeitung[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nIm Thriller Toggle wurde das Unternehmen von Florian Felix Weyh 2012 als „Toggle Inc.“ fiktionalisiert. Der Konzern betreibt im Roman über das Suchmaschinengeschäft hinaus einen Dienst namens „Toggle Democracy“, der aufgrund gespeicherter Daten seiner Nutzer deren individuellen Menschenwert errechnet und damit politische und wirtschaftliche Privilegien bzw. Nachteile verknüpft.[138][139][140] Das demokratische Prinzip „one man, one vote“ wird im Roman außer Kraft gesetzt. Ähnliche dystopische Erwartungen äußerte Weyh u. a. bereits 2007 in seinem Sachbuch Die letzte Wahl.\nIn der US-amerikanischen Filmkomödie Prakti.com (Originaltitel The Internship) fangen zwei Arbeitslose in den Mitt-Vierzigern ein Praktikum bei Google an. Das Unternehmen ist nicht an der Produktion des Films beteiligt, trotzdem durfte ein Teil des Filmes im Googleplex, dem Unternehmenssitz von Google, gedreht werden. Der überwiegende Teil entstand jedoch auf dem Campus des Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.\nLiteratur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDavid Vise, Mark Malseed: The Google Story., Random House, New York 2005, ISBN 0-553-80457-X (engl. Originalausg., Auszüge; Website zum Buch)\nDavid Vise, Mark Malseed: Die Google-Story . Murmann, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-938017-56-2.\nJohn Battelle: Die Suche. Geschäftleben und Kultur im Banne von Google & Co . Börsenmedien, Kulmbach 2006, ISBN 3-938350-11-3.\nJean-Noël Jeanneney: Googles Herausforderung. Für eine europäische Bibliothek . Wagenbach, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-8031-2534-0.\nRalf Kaumanns, Veit Siegenheim: Die Google-Ökonomie: Wie Google die Wirtschaft verändert . BoD, Norderstedt 2007, ISBN 978-3-8334-9795-7.\nMarcel Marchill, Markus Beiler: Die Macht der Suchmaschinen . Halem, Köln 2007, ISBN 978-3-938258-33-0.\nGerald Reischl: Die Google-Falle. Die unkontrollierte Weltmacht im Internet . Überreuther, Wien 2008, ISBN 978-3-8000-7323-8.\nLars Reppesgard: Das Google Imperium . Murmann, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-86774-046-3.\nJeff Jarvis: Was würde Google tun? Wie man von den Erfolgsstrategien des Internet-Giganten profitiert. Heyne, 2009 (englisch: What would Google do? New York, NY: HarperBusiness, ISBN 978-0-06-170971-5 . Übersetzt von Heike Holtsch).\nTheo Röhle: Der Google-Komplex: über Macht im Zeitalter des Internets, Transcript, Bielefeld 2010, ISBN 978-3-8376-1478-7 (Dissertation Uni Hamburg 2010, 261 Seiten).\nBernd M. Samland: Der Google-Effekt: die Bildung markenspezifischer Verben, Logos, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-8325-2374-9 (Dissertation Universität Rostock 2010, 182 Seiten).\nSteven Levy: Google Inside. Wie Google denkt, arbeitet und unser Leben verändert. mitp, Heidelberg 2012, ISBN 978-3-8266-9243-7. (Amerikanische Originalausgabe: In the Plex. How Google Thinks, Works and Shapes Our Lives. Simon & Schuster, New York 2011).\nEric Schmidt, Jonathan Rosenberg, Alan Eagle: Wie Google tickt. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2015, ISBN 978-3-593-50216-8 (Die amerikanische Originalausgabe How Google Works erschien erstmals 2014 bei Grand Central Publishing in New York)\nThomas Schulz: Was Google wirklich will. Wie der einflussreichste Konzern der Welt unsere Zukunft verändert. 3. Auflage. Penguin, München 2017, ISBN 978-3-328-10143-7. (Die deutsche Originalausgabe erschien erstmals 2015 bei der Deutschen Verlags-Anstalt in München)\nScott Galloway: The Four. Die geheime DNA von Amazon, Apple, Facebook und Google. Plassen, Kulmbach 2018, ISBN 978-3-86470-487-1. (Amerikanische Originalausgabe: The Four. The Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook and Google. Portfolio/Penguin, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-7352-1365-4)\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nWeitere Inhalte in den\nSchwesterprojekten der Wikipedia:\nCommons – Medieninhalte (Kategorie)\nWiktionary – Wörterbucheinträge\nWikinews – Nachrichten\nWikiquote – Zitate\nOffizielle Website\nOffizieller Blog\nOffizielle Google-Zeitgeschichte, eine Auflistung von Meldungen seit Sommer 1995 (englisch)\nEinzelnachweise[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\n↑ Alphabet Finishes Reorganization With New XXVI Company, Mark Bergen\n↑ Google-Unternehmensinformationen\n↑ statista.com: Marktanteile der Suchmaschinen weltweit nach mobiler und stationärer Nutzung im Juni 2018, statista.\n↑ BrandZ Top 100 Most valuable global brands 2011 (PDF), MillwordBrown\n↑ Best Global Brands 2013 (Memento vom 21. Oktober 2014 im Internet Archive) (PDF), Interbrand\n↑ Mitteilung der Börsenaufsicht der Vereinigten Staaten; United States Securities and Exchange Commission vom 2. Oktober 2015, abgerufen am 5. Oktober 2015.\n↑ Gründer bauen Internetkonzern um – Google wird zu Alphabet, tagesschau.de.\n↑ Revolution bei Google: Abspaltungen und eine Holding, heise.de.\n↑ Google vollzieht Umbau zu Alphabet-Holding, heise-online vom 3. Oktober 2015.\n↑ Wade Roush: Google zum Gähnen. Artikel, Technology Review, 19. Juni 2006. Abgerufen am 7. Februar 2007\n↑ Ivan Mehta: Killed By Google is a digital graveyard of the company’s dead products. 26. März 2019, abgerufen am 25. August 2021 (englisch).\n↑ Ralf Kaumanns, Veit Siegenheim: Von der Suchmaschine zum Werbekonzern (Memento vom 16. Dezember 2014 im Internet Archive) (PDF; 1,5 MB). MP 1/2008, S. 25–33.\n↑ Android basiert auf Linux, aber was bedeutet das? Abgerufen am 31. August 2020.\n↑ Mobile Operating System Market Share Worldwide. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (englisch).\n↑ Der große iOS vs. Android Vergleich – alle Fakten im Check. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020.\n↑ Denny Fischer: Fast niemand kauft Android-Uhren: Wear OS by Google endgültig gescheitert? 26. August 2020, abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ 4 Ways Google's Android Beats Samsung's Android and 3 Ways It Doesn't. Abgerufen am 31. August 2020 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ a b Alphabet Registered (A) Bilanz, Gewinn und Umsatz | Alphabet Registered (A) Geschäftsbericht | A14Y6F. Abgerufen am 21. Oktober 2018.\n↑ Alphabet Investor Relations. In: Alphabet Investor Relations. Abgerufen am 16. März 2016.\n↑ Angaben von Google, 2011 Financial Tables\n↑ a b Google 2.4% Rate Shows How $60 Billion Lost to Tax Loopholes, 20. Oktober 2010 Bloomberg\n↑ FAZ: Google und andere – Über Irland Gewinne in Steueroasen schleusen, 28. August 2011\n↑ Corporate Tax Holiday in Debt Ceiling Deal: Where’s the Uproar?, 20. Juli 2011, Rolling Stone Politics – Matt Taibbi\n↑ FAZ.net 4. Januar 2019: Google schleuste 20 Milliarden Euro durch Steuerschlupfloch\n↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Googles deutsches Steuersparmodell, 29. Januar 2016\n↑ Google beschäftigt mehr Zeitarbeiter als eigene Mitarbeiter\n↑ 15 Jahre Google Schweiz - «Google.ch hat die Schweizer Onlinelandschaft umgepflügt». In: srf.ch. 10. September 2019, abgerufen am 29. September 2019.\n↑ Axel Kannenberg: Googles US-Mitarbeiter gründen Gewerkschaft. In: heise online. 4. Januar 2021, abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Tobias Költzsch: Alphabet. Google-Mitarbeiter gründen Betriebsrat. In: Golem.de. IT-News für Profis. 4. Januar 2021, abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Alphabet Workers Union. Abgerufen am 4. Januar 2021.\n↑ Der Triumph der grossen Zahl . Neue Zürcher Zeitung. 25. April 2008. Abgerufen am 6. Mai 2008.\n↑ 20 Jahre Google: BackRub – So hat vor über zwei Jahrzehnten die Geschichte von Google begonnen . In: GoogleWatchBlog . 26. August 2018 (googlewatchblog.de [abgerufen am 2. September 2018]).\n↑ John Battelle: The Birth of Google. In: Wired, August 2005.\n↑ Googeln wie ein Gott mz-web.de 14. September 2008\n↑ Offizielle Unternehmensgeschichte von Google, 8. Februar 2008\n↑ „Google, ein 100.000-Dollar-Missverständnis“, Heise online, 7. September 2008\n↑ David Koller: Origin of the name „Google“. Abgerufen am 19. Oktober 2016 (englisch).\n↑ Ansicht der Garage 1998 auf der Google Webseite\n↑ Unternehmensgeschichte im Detail: 2002, Google Inc.\n↑ Sergey Brin, Lawrence Page: The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine . In: Computer Networks and ISDN Systems . Band 30, Nr. 1–7, 1998, S. 107–117, doi:10.1016/S0169-7552(98)00110-X (englisch, stanford.edu [PDF; abgerufen am 9. März 2020]).\n↑ L.A. Barroso, J. Dean, U. Holzle: Web search for a planet: the google cluster architecture . In: IEEE Micro . 23, Nr. 2, 29. April 2003, S. 22–28. doi:10.1109/mm.2003.1196112. „We believe that the best price/performance tradeoff for our applications comes from fashioning a reliable computing infrastructure from clusters of unreliable commodity PCs.“\n↑ Google Acquires Usenet Discussion Service and Significant Assets from Deja.com\n↑ Blogger.com: Über uns. Abgerufen am 5. Dezember 2014.\n↑ Google Buys Applied Semantics\n↑ Google Acquires Picasa\n↑ Google Acquires Keyhole Corp\n↑ Google Inc.: Google Agrees To Acquire Urchin, 28. März 2005\n↑ a b VentureBeat: Google Acquires Dodgeball\n↑ Where Are You? Show 'Em With Google Latitude\n↑ BusinessWeek: (Memento vom 21. Oktober 2011 im Internet Archive) Google Buys Android for Its Mobile Arsenal\n↑ Official Google Blog: We're expecting (Memento vom 30. Dezember 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Official Google Blog: More sharing (Memento vom 30. Dezember 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Official Google Blog: A new home for @Last Software\n↑ tagesschau.de: Google schluckt Videoportal YouTube (Memento vom 17. Juli 2009 im Internet Archive)\n↑ Google übernahm Wiki-Startup JotSpot, heise.de\n↑ BuchMarkt 3/2007, S. 25\n↑ Google Visualization API Gadget Gallery, Google Developers\n↑ Google kauft DoubleClick für 3,1 Milliarden US-Dollar, golem.de\n↑ „Google und DoubleClick würden zusammen mehr als 80 Prozent der Werbung umschlagen, die ein Internet-Nutzer sieht, wenn er eine Website ansteuert, argumentierten sie.“ spiegel.de\n↑ Ranking. Google ist wertvollste Marke der Welt, spiegel.de, 23. April 2007.\n↑ spiegel.de: für März 2007: „1. Google (528 Millionen Besucher) 2. Microsoft (527 Millionen Besucher) 3. Yahoo (473 Millionen Besucher) 4. Time-Warner (272 Millionen Besucher) 5. Ebay (256 Millionen Besucher) 6. Wikipedia (212 Millionen Besucher)“\n↑ Google integriert GrandCentral als Google Voice, heise.de\n↑ Geoeye-1: Googles Satellit liefert erstes Bild, netzwelt.de\n↑ Google wirft ein GeoEye-1 auf Earth, silicon.de\n↑ Bernd Kling: Google sieht dich – jetzt noch schärfer, itespresso.de, 7. September 2008\n↑ AdSense Blog: Höhere Einnahmen durch maßgeschneiderte Anzeigen\n↑ Behavioral Targeting bei Google AdSense und YouTube, golem.de\n↑ Personalisierte Werbung – Google weiß, wo du surfst, sueddeutsche.de\n↑ Alexis Johann: Google Ventures verteilt 100 Millionen an Start Ups (Memento vom 8. Dezember 2014 im Internet Archive). wirtschaftsblatt.at, 1. April 2009\n↑ ZDnet: Google startet Beteiligungsgesellschaft Google Ventures\n↑ Google’s newest venture, Google Blog\n↑ What Is Google Squared? It Is How Google Will Crush Wolfram Alpha (Exclusive Video), Techcrunch\n↑ Google Squared ist online, heise online\n↑ Google veröffentlicht den Quelltext von Chrome OS. Heise Online, 19. November 2009, abgerufen am 20. November 2009.\n↑ Technische Details zum Google Nexus One - fairhandy. Abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ Pressemitteilung von Google am 1. Februar 2011. Abgerufen am 11. Februar 2011 (englisch).\n↑ Google Fiber – How to get Fiber, fiber.google.com, abgerufen am 8. März 2013\n↑ Volker Briegleb: Google übernimmt Motorola Mobility. heise online, 15. August 2011.\n↑ Roland Lindner: Verkauf an Lenovo: Google stößt Motorola wieder ab. FAZ.NET, 29. Januar 2014.\n↑ Google übernimmt Restaurantführer Zagat Survey, abgerufen am 12. September 2011\n↑ Google drängt auf das Parkett der Super-Lobbyisten, Lobbycontrol, 29. Juli 2011\n↑ Google’s Lobbying Blitz, Newsweek, 23. Juli 2011\n↑ Expanding the Internet domain space. In: Google Official Blog. Abgerufen am 5. Juli 2012 (englisch).\n↑ 70 New-gTLD-Bewerber aus Deutschland – Google und Amazon Spitzenreiter. In: united-domains Blog. Abgerufen am 7. Mai 2012.\n↑ Internetnews.com, abgerufen am 16. August 2012\n↑ Google zieht drei Domain Bewerbungen zurück. In: united-domains Blog. 6. September 2012, abgerufen am 15. Oktober 2012.\n↑ Lisa Hemmerich: Übernahme: Google kauft Instant-Messaging-Dienst Meebo. In: netzwelt. 5. Juni 2012, abgerufen am 18. September 2012.\n↑ Annika Demgen: Link-Wink: Google startet „Gründer-Garage“ in Berlin. In: netzwelt. 3. August 2012, abgerufen am 4. August 2012.\n↑ Yvonne Ortmann: Kampf der Fotodienste: Google schnappt sich Foto-App Snapseed. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 18. September 2012, archiviert vom Original am 19. September 2012; abgerufen am 4. Februar 2019.\n↑ Yvonne Ortmann: Google Ingress: Weltweites Alternate-Reality-Spiel fürs Smartphone. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 17. November 2012, archiviert vom Original am 19. November 2012; abgerufen am 2. April 2019.\n↑ Lars Budde: Google integriert Unternehmensfotos in Suchergebnisse. In: t3n Magazin. 20. Dezember 2012, abgerufen am 21. Dezember 2012.\n↑ Pascal: Chromebook Pixel vorgestellt. In: googlewatchblog.de. 21. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 22. Juli 2013.\n↑ Jürgen Kuri: Google: Chromebook Pixel mit Touchscreen und hochauflösendem Display. In: heise online. 22. Februar 2013, abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jan Tißler: Google Keep: Notizendienst offiziell gestartet. In: t3n Magazin. 20. März 2013, archiviert vom Original am 22. März 2013; abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jürgen Vielmeier: Wie Google es immer noch schafft zu überraschen. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: Netzwertig. 21. März 2013, archiviert vom Original am 23. März 2013; abgerufen am 22. März 2013.\n↑ Jan Tißler: Google Kontoinaktivität-Manager: So regelst du deinen digitalen Nachlass. In: t3n Magazin. 11. April 2013, abgerufen am 12. April 2013.\n↑ Über den Kontoinaktivität-Manager. In: Hilfe. Google Inc., abgerufen am 12. April 2013.\n↑ Kim Rixecker: Project Loon: Heißluftballons bringen das Internet in entlegene Gegenden. (Nicht mehr online verfügbar.) In: t3n Magazin. 17. Juni 2013, archiviert vom Original am 20. Juni 2013; abgerufen am 2. April 2019.\n↑ Andreas Donath: Boston Dynamics: Google kauft zum Jahresende Militärroboter-Hersteller. Golem.de, 14. Dezember 2013, abgerufen am 16. Dezember 2013.\n↑ Henning Steier: Google kauft DeepMind. nzz.ch, 27. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 31. Januar 2014.\n↑ Henning Steier: Google kauft Google möchte Nest Labs kaufen. nzz.ch, 14. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 27. März 2018.\n↑ NTV: Hyperschnell und hochfliegend: Google kauft Drohenenbauer. n-tv.de, 16. April 2014, abgerufen am 16. April 2014.\n↑ Google kauft Spezialisten für Satellitenbilder. Handelsblatt, abgerufen am 10. Juni 2014.\n↑ Google gönnt sich einen Flughafen, sueddeutsche.de am 11. November 2014\n↑ Google mietet kalifornischen Flugplatz für 60 Jahre, heise.de, 11. November 2014\n↑ Google Pixel: Release, technische Daten, Bilder und Preis. 5. Oktober 2016, abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ Pixel 3a (XL): Vorstellungstermin für neues Google-Handy steht fest. 16. April 2019, abgerufen am 25. August 2020.\n↑ techcrunch.com: Google is acquiring data science community Kaggle\n↑ Milliarden-Deal: Google kauft Teile der HTC-Smartphone-Sparte – Golem.de . (golem.de [abgerufen am 22. September 2017]).\n↑ bloomberg.com: Alphabet Finishes Reorganization With New XXVI Company\n↑ Markus Kasanmascheff: Google kauft Tenor: Das können GIF-Nutzer nach dem Deal erwarten. In: Netzwelt. 28. März 2018, abgerufen am 8. März 2021.\n↑ Rick Osterloh: Helping more people with wearables: Google to acquire Fitbit. In: blog.google. 1. November 2019, abgerufen am 1. November 2019 (englisch).\n↑ Google-Aktie klettert über 400-Dollar-Marke, heise.de\n↑ Rekord: Der Google-Marktwert steigt über 150 Milliarden Dollar, spiegel.de\n↑ Google ist an der Wall Street mehr wert als IBM, heise.de\n↑ Aktien von Apple und Google auf Allzeithoch, heise.de\n↑ heise.de: Googles Börsenwert knackt die 200-Milliarden-Grenze\n↑ „Google hat inzwischen alle Technologie- und Internet-Werte mit Ausnahme von Microsoft [Börsenwert 293 Mrd. Dollar überholt. Die Google-Aktien sind insgesamt mehr wert als die des Netzwerkausrüsters Cisco Systems [199 Mrd.], des Chip-Riesen Intel [158 Mrd.] und der Computer-Branchenführer IBM [156 Mrd.] und Hewlett-Packard [137 Mrd.].“] orf.at\n↑ „Vor wenigen Tagen überschritt der Kurs der Google-Aktie die 600-Dollar-Marke und das Unternehmen steht mittlerweile in der Rangliste der wertvollsten US-Gesellschaften auf Platz zehn.“ sueddeutsche.de\n↑ Google-Aktie: In nur drei Wochen 100 US-Dollar teurer, heise.de\n↑ welt.de: Google-Aktie knackt auch die 700-US-Dollar-Marke\n↑ Geschäftsbericht Google Inc. (PDF; 127 kB)\n↑ Catull Pro. In: Berthold Types. Abgerufen am 26. August 2012.\n↑ Spezifikation der Schriftart „Product Sans“ https://storage.googleapis.com/g-design/static/product-sans-specimen.pdf\n↑ Google commits $1 billion to charity. The Boston Globe, 12. Oktober 2005, abgerufen am 23. August 2016 (englisch).\n↑ Peter Haber, Jan Hodel: Internet. In: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. 20. Dezember 2018, abgerufen am 4. März 2020.\n↑ Claudia Rey: Google expandiert in Zürich . In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung . Nr. 124, 2. Juni 2021, S. 13 (nzz.ch [abgerufen am 2. Juni 2021]).\n↑ aecom.com (Memento vom 18. Januar 2015 im Webarchiv archive.today)\n↑ Internet und Gesellschaft: Google baut Forschungsinstitut in Berlin – Artikel bei Golem.de, vom 16. Februar 2011\n↑ David Drummond: Google: „Interaktion von Internet, Forschung und Gesellschaft verstehen“. Zeit Online, 25. Oktober 2011\n↑ Discover our data center locations. Abgerufen am 25. Dezember 2019 (englisch).\n↑ Google lässt in Asien bauen. In: n-tv. 15. Dezember 2011, abgerufen am 26. August 2012.\n↑ Google green, abgerufen am 3. Februar 2016\n↑ Wie viel Energie verbraucht das Netz? Zeit online, 13. Mai 2011\n↑ Google legt erstmals seinen Energieverbrauch offen Die Welt, 8. September 2011\n↑ Jonathan D. Koomney, Professor an der Stanford University – Growth In Data Center Electricity Use 2005 To 2010 (PDF) Blogbeitrag auf Koomneys Website. Abgerufen am 23. April 2015.\n↑ https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Militaer-Projekt-Maven-Hunderte-Wissenschaftler-unterstuetzen-protestierende-Google-Mitarbeiter-4050834.html\n↑ Immer dieses böse, böse Internet, ZEITonline, abgerufen am 11. Januar 2012.\n↑ Google will die Weltherrschaft, Die Presse, abgerufen am 15. Januar 2012\n↑ Napper, Zapper, Bauernfänger In: Süddeutsche Zeitung 14. Januar 2012.\nAlphabet Inc.\nGoogle LLC | Calico | Nest Labs | X | Google Fiber | CapitalG | GV | Waymo | Verily Life Sciences | Sidewalk Labs | Jigsaw | DeepMind\nProjekte von X: Project Loon\n37.422222222222-122.08444444444Koordinaten: 37° 25′ 20″ N, 122° 5′ 4″ W\nNormdaten (Körperschaft): GND: 10122609-3 (OGND, AKS) | LCCN: no00095539 | VIAF: 124291214\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_LLC&oldid=215594784“\nKategorien:\nInternetunternehmen\nGoogle\nAlphabet Inc.\nUnternehmen (Mountain View, Kalifornien)\nOGC-Mitglied\nGegründet 1998\nMitglied im Council on Foreign Relations\nUnternehmen (Künstliche Intelligenz)\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nMeta\nWikiquote\nIn anderen Sprachen\nAfrikaans\nአማርኛ\nÆnglisc\nالعربية\nالدارجة\nمصرى\nঅসমীয়া\nAsturianu\nAzərbaycanca\nتۆرکجه\nBasa Bali\nBoarisch\nŽemaitėška\nБеларуская\nБеларуская (тарашкевіца)\nБългарски\nभोजपुरी\nBanjar\nBamanankan\nবাংলা\nBrezhoneg\nBosanski\nCatalà\nMìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄\nCebuano\nکوردی\nČeština\nЧӑвашла\nCymraeg\nDansk\nThuɔŋjäŋ\nZazaki\nDolnoserbski\nडोटेली\nΕλληνικά\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nEesti\nEuskara\nفارسی\nSuomi\nFøroyskt\nFrançais\nGaeilge\n贛語\nGalego\nBahasa Hulontalo\nગુજરાતી\nHausa\n客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî\nעברית\nहिन्दी\nHrvatski\nHornjoserbsce\nKreyòl ayisyen\nMagyar\nՀայերեն\nInterlingua\nBahasa Indonesia\nIdo\nÍslenska\nItaliano\nᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut\n日本語\nJawa\nქართული\nQaraqalpaqsha\nKabɩyɛ\nҚазақша\nភាសាខ្មែរ\nಕನ್ನಡ\n한국어\nKurdî\nКыргызча\nLatina\nLigure\nລາວ\nLietuvių\nLatviešu\nमैथिली\nMalagasy\nMinangkabau\nМакедонски\nമലയാളം\nМонгол\nमराठी\nBahasa Melayu\nမြန်မာဘာသာ\nمازِرونی\nNāhuatl\nPlattdüütsch\nनेपाली\nNederlands\nNorsk nynorsk\nNorsk bokmål\nߒߞߏ\nOccitan\nOromoo\nଓଡ଼ିଆ\nਪੰਜਾਬੀ\nPolski\nPiemontèis\nپنجابی\nپښتو\nPortuguês\nRuna Simi\nKirundi\nRomână\nРусский\nСаха тыла\nᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ\nSicilianu\nScots\nسنڌي\nSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватски\nTaclḥit\nසිංහල\nSimple English\nSlovenčina\nSlovenščina\nSoomaaliga\nShqip\nСрпски / srpski\nSunda\nSvenska\nதமிழ்\nತುಳು\nతెలుగు\nTetun\nТоҷикӣ\nไทย\nትግርኛ\nTürkmençe\nTagalog\nTürkçe\nТатарча/tatarça\nئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche\nУкраїнська\nاردو\nOʻzbekcha/ўзбекча\nVèneto\nTiếng Việt\nWest-Vlams\nWalon\nWinaray\n吴语\nმარგალური\nייִדיש\nYorùbá\nZeêuws\n中文\n文言\nBân-lâm-gú\n粵語\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 15. 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{"content":"Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (englisch amtlich President of the United States of America, Akronym POTUS), kurz Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten, ist ein Amt in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Der Amtsträger ist in einer Person Staatsoberhaupt, Regierungschef und Oberbefehlshaber der Streitkräfte. Eine Wahlperiode beträgt vier Jahre. Aktueller Amtsinhaber und 46. Präsident ist seit dem 20. Januar 2021 Joe Biden.\nGewählt wird der Präsident indirekt: Die Bürger wählen Wahlleute in ein Kollegium (Electoral College). Dieses wählt den Präsidenten. Erhält dabei kein Kandidat eine Mehrheit, entscheidet das Repräsentantenhaus, wie bei den Präsidentschaftswahlen 1800 und 1824.\nGleichzeitig mit dem Präsidenten wird ein Vizepräsident gewählt. Dieser hat laut Verfassung nur die Aufgabe, dem Senat vorzusitzen. Wenn aber ein Präsident das Amt vorzeitig beendet (etwa durch Rücktritt), dann wird der Vizepräsident für die übrige Wahlperiode der neue Präsident.\nDer Präsident ernennt Minister (englisch secretaries), die zusammen mit ihm die Regierung bilden. Sie bedürfen der Bestätigung durch den Senat. Ähnlich verhält es sich mit den obersten Richtern: Wird eine Richterstelle frei, besetzt der amtierende Präsident das Amt mit Bestätigung durch den Senat.\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Verfassungsrechtliche Stellung\n1.1 Staatsoberhaupt\n1.2 Regierungschef\n1.3 Oberbefehlshaber\n1.4 Zusammenarbeit mit dem Kongress\n2 Wahl, Übergang und Einführung in das Amt\n2.1 Voraussetzungen\n2.2 Vorwahlen\n2.2.1 Große Parteien\n2.2.2 Kleine Parteien\n2.3 Wahltag\n2.4 Präsidentschaftsübergang\n2.5 Wahlmännerkollegium\n2.6 Auszählung und Vereidigung\n3 Amtszeit\n3.1 Nachfolge bei vorzeitigem Amtsende\n3.2 Möglichkeit der Wiederwahl\n3.3 Amtsenthebung\n3.4 Erklärung der Amtsunfähigkeit\n4 Entlohnung und Privilegien\n5 Amtssitz\n6 Protokollarische Ehren\n7 Transportmittel\n8 Verschiedenes\n8.1 Wahl\n8.2 Amtsinhaber\n8.3 Biographisches\n8.4 Militärlaufbahn\n8.5 Ämter\n8.6 Verwandtschaftliche Beziehungen\n8.7 Persönliches\n8.8 Ehrungen\n8.9 Sonstiges\n9 Akronyme und Metonyme\n9.1 Akronyme\n9.2 Metonyme\n10 Siehe auch\n11 Literatur\n12 Weblinks\n13 Einzelnachweise\nVerfassungsrechtliche Stellung\n→ Hauptartikel: Befugnisse des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nDie Position des Präsidenten wird in Artikel II der Verfassung beschrieben. Vorschriften zu seiner Wahl und Amtszeit enthalten der 12., 20., 22., 23. und 25. Verfassungszusatz („amendment“).\nDer Präsident ist Staatsoberhaupt, Regierungschef und Oberbefehlshaber zugleich. Damit verkörpert er die Exekutive, die ausführende Gewalt der amerikanischen Bundesebene. Den Präsidenten kontrollieren der Kongress (Legislative, das Parlament) und die Bundesgerichte (Judikative).\nDem Gedanken der Gewaltenteilung entsprechend darf der Präsident daher auch nicht Mitglied des Kongresses oder eines Bundesgerichts sein. Gleichwohl sind die Bereiche nicht vollständig voneinander getrennt. So kann der Präsident beispielsweise einzelne Kongressbeschlüsse durch sein Veto zeitweilig verhindern (siehe unten) und ernennt zudem alle Bundesrichter, wenn auch nur nach Zustimmung des Senats. Es gilt das Prinzip der checks and balances, also der Kontrolle und des Ausgleichs, damit keines der Staatsorgane übermächtig wird.\nNicht in der amerikanischen Verfassung enthalten, aber als Rechtspraxis anerkannt, sind die präsidialen Direktiven Executive Order und Presidential Proclamation.\nStaatsoberhaupt\nSiegel des Präsidenten auf Half-Dollar-Münze\nDer Präsident ist als Staatsoberhaupt der Vereinigten Staaten Inhaber des höchsten Staatsamts. Er schließt im Namen der Vereinigten Staaten Verträge, die vom Senat mit Zweidrittelmehrheit ratifiziert werden müssen; er entsendet – mit Zustimmung des Senats – Diplomaten der Vereinigten Staaten und empfängt Gesandte anderer Staaten offiziell.\nEr ernennt – wiederum mit Zustimmung des Senats – die Richter der Bundesgerichte, insbesondere die Richter des Obersten Gerichtshofs, und alle sonstigen Bundesbeamten. Die Ernennung der obersten Richter erfolgt auf Lebenszeit.\nDie Befugnis zur Ernennung der sonstigen Bundesbeamten ist vom Kongress mit Ausnahme der wichtigsten Positionen weiterdelegiert worden. Der Präsident kann, wenn der Senat nicht versammelt ist, eine Person ernennen, selbst wenn dafür die Senatszustimmung erforderlich wäre (Recess Appointment). Diese Ernennung gilt jedoch nur bis zum Ende der jeweiligen Sitzungsperiode des Senates.\nDer Präsident hat auf Bundesebene das Recht zur Begnadigung. Er kann sowohl verurteilte Straftäter begnadigen als auch bereits vor einem Urteil eine Begnadigung aussprechen. Die Annahme der Begnadigung durch den Beschuldigten gilt dabei als Schuldeingeständnis. Manche Präsidenten sprechen kurz vor Ende ihrer Amtszeit noch viele Begnadigungen aus, so begnadigte Bill Clinton mehr als 100 Straftäter, darunter Patty Hearst und seinen Halbbruder Roger Clinton, am letzten Tag seiner Präsidentschaft.[1]\nDie Vereinigten Staaten verwendeten als eine der ersten modernen Demokratien die Bezeichnung „Präsident“ (anstelle eines Monarchen) für das Staatsoberhaupt. Fast alle republikanischen Staaten haben diese Amtsbezeichnung seither in Anlehnung an das amerikanische Vorbild übernommen.\nRegierungschef\nDas Kabinett von Präsident Harry S. Truman während einer Sitzung im August 1945\nDer Präsident ist auch der Regierungschef der Vereinigten Staaten: Er führt das von ihm – mit Zustimmung des Senats – ernannte Kabinett.\nGleichzeitig hat der Präsident weitere wichtige politische Berater, die dem Kabinett nicht angehören und im Executive Office zusammengefasst sind. Der Präsident besitzt im Kabinett eine vollständige Richtlinienkompetenz, da er einen Minister (secretary) jederzeit entlassen kann. Der Präsident hat dem Kongress von Zeit zu Zeit Bericht über die Lage der Nation zu erstatten. Das geschieht meist in der jährlichen State of the Union Address.\nOberbefehlshaber\nDer Präsident ist Oberbefehlshaber der Streitkräfte und auch der Nationalgarde der Bundesstaaten, sofern sich diese im Einsatz für den Bund befinden. Obwohl das Recht zur Kriegserklärung nach Artikel I Abschnitt 8 der Verfassung dem Kongress zusteht, kann der Präsident den Truppen selbständig nahezu alle Befehle erteilen, sofern er gewisse parlamentarische Kontrollrechte wahrt und nicht formal einen Krieg erklärt.\nÜber den Einsatz von Atomwaffen entscheidet die National Command Authority (NCA), die vom Präsidenten und dem Verteidigungsminister gemeinsam gebildet wird. Beide müssen unabhängig voneinander für einen Einsatz stimmen, jeder der beiden hat also ein Vetorecht.\nZusammenarbeit mit dem Kongress\nBill Clinton im Jahr 1997 während seiner State of the Union Address\nPräsident Gerald Ford während der Unterzeichnung eines Gesetzes (1976)\nDer Präsident wird nicht vom Kongress gewählt und kann von diesem nicht entlassen werden. Umgekehrt ist auch eine vorzeitige Auflösung von einer der beiden Kammern in der Verfassung nicht vorgesehen, so dass der Präsident auch keinen Einfluss auf dessen Zusammensetzung nehmen kann.\nOftmals gehört der Präsident einer anderen Partei an als die Mehrheit der Abgeordneten in mindestens einer der beiden Kammern des Kongresses. In solch einem Fall spricht man von einem Divided government. Da das gesamte Repräsentantenhaus und ein Drittel des Senats alle zwei Jahre gewählt werden, kann diese Situation auch mitten in der Amtszeit des Präsidenten entstehen. Unbeschadet eines überparteilichen Konsenses in Notsituationen, wie er sich z. B. nach dem, 11. September 2001 trotz eines divided government unter George W. Bush zeigte, ist naturgemäß die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass beide Institutionen gemeinsame Interessen haben und an einem Strang ziehen, bei gleicher Parteizugehörigkeit höher. Eine „vereinte Regierung“ ist zwar durchaus keine seltene Erscheinung, allerdings tritt sie in manchen Zeitabschnitten häufiger auf als in anderen. So war in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts ein unified government die Regel, nachdem es in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts die Ausnahme war. Auch in der Zeit seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg erscheint sie aufs Ganze gesehen eher als Ausnahme, wenn auch das Verhältnis ausgewogener ist: Zwischen 1945 und 2021 konnte sich der Präsident in etwas mehr als zwei Fünftel der Zeit auf ein unified government stützen. Gegenwärtig regiert Joe Biden im Rahmen eines unified government.\nObwohl vom Kongress im Prinzip unabhängig und mit einigem exekutivem Spielraum ausgestattet, ist der Präsident trotzdem in der Regel um die Unterstützung des Kongresses bemüht, da dieser als essentieller Teil der Legislative Gesetzesvorhaben der Regierung mittragen und u. a. auch die Mittel für die Bundesbehörden bewilligen muss. Ohne diese Unterstützung ist der Handlungsspielraum des Präsidenten stark eingeschränkt. Fehlen Mittel für die Bundesbehörden, kann es im Extremfall zu einem sogenannten Government Shutdown kommen, bei dem die Angestellten der Bundesbehörden keinen Lohn mehr erhalten (und dann in der Regel ihre Arbeit einstellen). In der Praxis ist fast jeder Präsident zumindest in Teilen seiner Amtszeit darauf angewiesen, einen überparteilichen Konsens zu finden, um regieren zu können.\nDer Präsident hat als Verkörperung der Exekutive formal keine Möglichkeit, dem Kongress Gesetzesvorhaben vorzulegen. In der Praxis werden daher vom Präsidenten geförderte Gesetzentwürfe von dem Präsidenten nahestehenden Abgeordneten in die zuständige Kammer eingebracht. Außerdem kann der Präsident durch informelle Einflussnahme, unter anderem auch durch seine Rede zur Lage der Nation, Entscheidungen des Kongresses in die von ihm gewünschte Richtung zu lenken versuchen.\nStimmt er mit der Linie des Kongresses überhaupt nicht überein, so kann er gegen ein Gesetz ein Veto einlegen, das vom Kongress nur mit Zweidrittelmehrheit in beiden Kammern zurückgewiesen werden kann. Bei einem Veto ist der Präsident darauf beschränkt, ein Gesetz als Ganzes anzunehmen oder abzulehnen: Ein sogenanntes Line-Item-Veto, das die Ablehnung einzelner Stellen eines Gesetzes ermöglicht, ist nicht vorgesehen. Ein Versuch im Jahr 1996, dem Präsidenten das Recht auf ein Line-Item-Veto per Gesetz einzuräumen, wurde zwei Jahre später durch den Obersten Gerichtshof für verfassungswidrig erklärt. Es bedarf also einer Verfassungsänderung, um dies zu ermöglichen.[2]\nWahl, Übergang und Einführung in das Amt\n→ Hauptartikel: Präsidentschaftswahl in den Vereinigten Staaten\nDie Wahl des Präsidenten ist relativ kompliziert. Üblicherweise stellen sich Interessenten schon ein bis zwei Jahre vor dem Wahltag der Öffentlichkeit vor. Im Winter des Wahljahres beginnen die sogenannten Vorwahlen, die von den Parteien organisiert werden (primaries, dabei gibt es unterschiedliche Formate). Über die Vorwahlen ihrer Partei erhalten die Kandidaten Wahlleute, die dann im Sommer auf den Wahlparteitagen darüber abstimmen, wer Präsidentschaftskandidat der Partei werden soll. Meist steht aber lange vor dem Parteitag fest, wer am meisten Wahlleute auf sich vereint.\nAm Wahltag im November des Wahljahres wählen die amerikanischen Bürger einen Präsidentschaftskandidaten und mit dem gleichen Wahlzettel den dazugehörigen Kandidaten für die Vizepräsidentschaft. So wird in den einzelnen Bundesstaaten ermittelt, wer im Bundesstaat die meisten Stimmen erhalten hat. In den meisten Bundesstaaten erhält dieser Kandidat alle Wahlleute (electors) des betreffenden Bundesstaates. Das Wahlmännerkollegium bestimmt dann offiziell den Präsidenten. Diese Wahl wird später im Kongress (in beiden Parlamentskammern) bestätigt.\nVoraussetzungen\nUm wählbar zu sein, muss ein Kandidat das passive Wahlrecht besitzen, er darf also weder Strafgefangener sein, noch durch Entmündigung, ein Amtsenthebungsverfahren oder anderweitig sein Wahlrecht verloren haben. Das Mindestalter beträgt 35 Jahre, außerdem muss ein Kandidat seinen Wohnsitz seit mindestens 14 Jahren in den Vereinigten Staaten haben.\nEr muss entweder zum Zeitpunkt der Ratifikation der Verfassung bereits Bürger der USA gewesen sein, was für die ersten neun Präsidenten zutraf, oder ein natural born citizen der USA sein. Letztere Vorschrift ist nicht ganz eindeutig, so gab es bei der Kandidatur von John McCain eine Debatte, ob er diese Vorschrift erfülle, da er in der damals unter Kontrolle der USA stehenden Panamakanalzone geboren wurde.[3] Vorherrschende Ansicht ist inzwischen, dass jeder Mensch, der die Staatsbürgerschaft der Vereinigten Staaten durch seine Geburt erlangt hat, ein natural born citizen ist.\nDer 14. Zusatzartikel, der 1868 ratifiziert wurde, schließt ehemalige Offiziere, Beamte oder gewählte Amtsinhaber von öffentlichen Ämtern aus, wenn sie an einer Rebellion gegen die Vereinigten Staaten beteiligt waren oder ihre Feinde unterstützt hatten. Der Kongress hat das Recht, mit einer Zweidrittelmehrheit solche Bewerber trotzdem zuzulassen. 1898 wurden pauschal alle Personen wieder zugelassen, die bis dahin von der Ausschlussregel des 14. Zusatzartikels betroffen waren.[4]\nSeit 1951 begrenzt der 22. Zusatzartikel die Amtszeit, indem er vorschreibt, dass niemand mehr als zweimal zum Präsidenten gewählt werden darf, unabhängig davon, ob die Amtszeiten aufeinander folgen oder nicht. Ein Vizepräsident, der durch ein vorzeitiges Ausscheiden des Präsidenten in dieses Amt vorrückt, darf sich nur dann zweimal zur Wahl stellen, wenn von der Amtszeit des ursprünglichen Amtsträgers nicht mehr als zwei Jahre übrig sind. Ein regulär gewählter Präsident kann also maximal acht Jahre amtieren, ein ohne Wahl nachgerückter Vizepräsident kann theoretisch bis zu zehn Jahre im Amt verbleiben.\nDurch den 12. Verfassungszusatz ist geregelt, dass niemand zum Vizepräsidenten gewählt werden darf, der nicht die Voraussetzungen erfüllt, zum Präsidenten gewählt zu werden. Hierdurch kann ein bereits zweifach gewählter Präsident auch nicht über den Umweg als Vizepräsident nochmals in das Präsidentenamt gelangen. Auch die Nachfolge des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten in der gegenwärtigen gesetzlichen Regelung schließt Personen aus, die nicht die Voraussetzungen erfüllen, zum Präsidenten gewählt zu werden, so dass auch ein Nachrücken als kommissarischer Präsident ausgeschlossen ist.\nInsbesondere die Vorschrift, dass der Präsident gebürtiger US-Amerikaner sein muss, wird durchaus hinterfragt, da Einwanderer einen großen Teil der Bevölkerung ausmachen. Hintergrund der Vorschrift war ursprünglich das Bestreben, kolonialistische Briten vom Präsidentenamt fernzuhalten. Der gebürtige Österreicher Arnold Schwarzenegger, von 2003 bis 2011 Gouverneur von Kalifornien, galt als einer der bekanntesten Kandidaten im Falle der Aufhebung dieser Vorschrift, zu der allerdings eine Verfassungsänderung notwendig wäre.\nVorwahlen\nGroße Parteien\nDemocratic National Convention im Jahr 1964\nJeder Präsidentschaftskandidat der beiden großen Parteien, also der Demokraten und der Republikaner, wird auf deren Parteitag formell gewählt, der im Sommer vor der Wahl abgehalten wird. Die Delegierten einer Partei für diesen Parteitag werden in Vorwahlen (primaries) bestimmt, die von Januar bis ungefähr Juli des Wahljahres durchgeführt werden.\nWährend ein amtierender und wieder antretender Präsident in der Regel unangefochten wieder von seiner Partei nominiert wird, ist das Auswahlverfahren in der Partei des Herausforderers deutlich spannender. Die Delegiertenmandate werden entsprechend der Bevölkerungsgröße in den einzelnen Bundesstaaten vergeben. Dadurch kann der Sieg in mehreren großen Bundesstaaten in Verbindung mit der Tatsache, dass dem Kandidaten alle Delegiertenstimmen des Staates zufallen, für einen Kandidaten bereits die Parteinominierung bedeuten. Deshalb wird schon in diesen Vorwahlen mit großem Aufwand Wahlkampf gemacht. Die Finanzierung erfolgt im Wesentlichen durch Spenden.\nDie Regeln der Vorwahlen sind sehr komplex und variieren in jedem Bundesstaat und auch zwischen den Parteien. Sie werden zudem bei jeder Wahl modifiziert.\nEs gibt im Wesentlichen zwei Typen von Vorwahlen:\nCaucus: Manche Staaten führen einen Caucus durch. Hierbei werden örtliche Versammlungen abgehalten, an denen Fürsprecher der jeweiligen Kandidaten für diesen werben. Danach werden Stimmen gezählt, oft in mehreren Runden, bei denen jeweils der stimmenschwächste Kandidat ausscheidet und sich dessen Anhänger auf einen der anderen Kandidaten festlegen können. Das Gesamtstimmenergebnis ergibt sich dann aus den Stimmen dieser Versammlungen.\nDemgegenüber wird bei einer primary eine Vorwahl durchgeführt, bei der registrierte Wähler teilnehmen können. Dieses Format findet in den meisten Staaten Anwendung.\nWer an den Caucuses bzw. Primaries teilnehmen darf, ist ebenso unterschiedlich. Teilweise sind die Abstimmungen offen für alle Bürger, teils nur für Wähler, die sich für die jeweilige Partei registriert haben. In einigen Staaten gibt es Mischformen, bei denen registrierte Wähler, die keine Parteipräferenz angegeben haben, auch teilnehmen dürfen.\nDie Zuteilung der Delegierten erfolgt bei den Demokraten im Wesentlichen proportional zum Wahlergebnis. Bei den Republikanern war bis 2012 das Winner-take-all-Prinzip üblich. D. h. hier erhielt der Kandidat mit den meisten Stimmen alle Delegierten des Staates. 2016 wurde dies nur noch für die späteren Vorwahlen erlaubt. Jedoch sind immer noch Modelle üblich, bei denen der Kandidat mit den meisten Stimmen z. B. in jedem Fall die Mehrheit der Delegierten erhält.\nDie nationale Partei legt u. a. einen Rahmen für den Terminkalender der Vorwahlen fest, da viele Staaten ein Interesse daran haben, einen möglichst frühen Wahltermin festzulegen, um im Kampf um die Nominierung noch eine Rolle zu spielen. Traditionell beginnen die Vorwahlen mit den Caucuses in Iowa und den Primaries in New Hampshire. In einigen Fällen, in denen sich der lokale Ableger der jeweiligen Partei nicht an diese Regeln hielt und die Vorwahl z. B. zu früh terminierte, wurde dies von der nationalen Partei mit dem Entzug einiger oder aller Delegierten beim Parteitag bestraft. Üblicherweise gibt es ungefähr Anfang März einen als Super Tuesday bezeichneten Dienstag, an dem die größte Anzahl Staaten gleichzeitig Vorwahlen abhalten und der daher oft als entscheidende Etappe zur Nominierung gesehen wird.\nIn der Praxis nehmen nie alle erklärten Kandidaten an der ganzen Vorwahlsaison teil. Vielmehr ist es so, dass nach und nach Kandidaten aufgeben, die keine Erfolgschance mehr sehen. Am Ende bleiben nur der designierte Kandidat (presumptive nominee) und solche Kandidaten, die trotz Aussichtslosigkeit im Rennen verbleiben oder ihre Kandidatur zu spät zurückgezogen haben, um noch von den Wahlzetteln in den späteren Vorwahlstaaten gestrichen zu werden. In seltenen Fällen dauert der Kampf um die Nominierung lange an – ein Beispiel hierfür sind die Vorwahlen 2008, bei denen Hillary Clinton sich ein Kopf-an-Kopf-Rennen mit Barack Obama lieferte und erst nach Abschluss aller Vorwahlen aufgab.\nDie in den Vorwahlen bestimmten Delegierten sind zumindest im ersten Wahlgang auch dazu verpflichtet, für den Kandidaten zu stimmen, für den sie gewählt wurden.\nEine weitere Besonderheit der Parteitage ist, dass auch die bewohnten Außengebiete der USA einige Delegierten entsenden und somit Einfluss auf die Nominierung nehmen können, auch wenn sie bei den Wahlen im November kein Stimmrecht haben. Beide Parteien haben zudem auch Delegierte, die nicht über die Vorwahlen bestimmt wurden, sondern durch ihre Position als aktiver Politiker ein Stimmrecht beim Parteitag haben. Bei den Demokraten wird von sogenannten Superdelegierten gesprochen, die derzeit ca. 15 Prozent der Delegierten ausmachen. Da deren Stimmen das Ergebnis der Vorwahlen bei vergangenen Parteitagen auch kippen konnten, waren und sind diese umstritten. Zuletzt wurde 2018 eine Reform beschlossen, nach der zwei Drittel der Superdelegierten an die Ergebnisse ihrer Staaten gebunden sind. Zudem haben Superdelegierte im ersten Wahlgang kein Stimmrecht mehr. Die Republikaner haben auch ungebundene Delegierte. Diese sind aber deutlich weniger zahlreich und spielen eine weniger große Rolle.\nNach Abschluss der Vorwahlen werden auf großen Parteitagen (National Conventions) der jeweiligen Parteien die entsprechenden Kandidaten formal bestätigt. Gleichzeitig gibt der Präsidentschaftskandidat an, wen er als Kandidaten für die Vizepräsidentschaft nominiert. Auch dieser Kandidat wird in der Regel vom Parteitag bestätigt.\nNominierungsparteitage sind seit den 1830er Jahren üblich. Geht kein Kandidat mit einer Mehrheit in den Parteitag geht, kommt es zu einer „brokered convention“ (dt. vermittelter Parteitag), bei der mehrere Abstimmungsrunden abgehalten werden müssen. Dies war lange Zeit der Normalfall, insbesondere bei den Demokraten, die von 1832 bis 1936 eine Zweidrittelmehrheit der Delegierten zur Nominierung vorschrieben. Seit Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts begannen verschiedene Staaten, Vorwahlen einzuführen. Diese hatten aber lange Zeit keinen bindenden Charakter. Auch danach gab es Parteitage, an denen mehrere Abstimmungen durchgeführt werden mussten, zuletzt 1948 bei den Republikanern und 1952 bei den Demokraten. Nachdem der Parteitag der Demokraten 1968 chaotisch verlief und zu großer Uneinigkeit führte, u. a. weil der letztendlich nominierte Präsidentschaftskandidat Hubert H. Humphrey zuvor bei keiner der 13 Vorwahlen als Kandidat angetreten war, wurden die Regeln verschärft. Eine Folge davon war, dass die meisten Staaten es als einfachste Möglichkeit sahen, den neuen Regeln zu folgen, indem sie eine Vorwahl durchführten. Dem folgten auch zunehmend die Republikaner. 1992 führten die Republikaner in 39 Staaten und die Demokraten in 40 Staaten Vorwahlen durch. Hierdurch sind umkämpfte Abstimmungen seltener geworden, da der Sieger im Vorfeld schon feststeht, so dass nur noch wenige Stimmen an Außenseiter gehen. Selbst in knappen Rennen wie zwischen Barack Obama und Hillary Clinton im Jahr 2008 kann dies dadurch gelöst werden, dass die Abstimmung vorzeitig abgebrochen und auf Antrag die Nominierung per Akklamation durchgeführt wird.\nKleine Parteien\nDie größeren der kleinen Parteien wie die Libertäre Partei oder die Grüne Partei halten auch Vorwahlen zur Bestimmung von Parteitagsdelegierten ab, jedoch nicht in allen Bundesstaaten.\nIm Gegensatz zu den großen Parteien ist für die kleinen Parteien auch nicht garantiert, dass sie in allen Bundesstaaten auf dem Stimmzettel stehen. Sie müssen in jedem Bundesstaat die jeweiligen Hürden hierfür überwinden. Dies gelingt nur den wenigsten Parteien. In vielen Staaten besteht auch die Möglichkeit des „Write-In“, d. h. die Wähler können in einem freien Feld einen Kandidaten ihrer Wahl eintragen.\nBei der letzten Präsidentschaftswahl 2020 war einzig der Kandidat der Libertären Partei überall ohne Write-In wählbar. Der Kandidat der Grüne Partei war in immerhin so vielen Staaten wählbar, dass er auch ohne Write-ins hätte siegen können. Alle anderen Kandidaten wären für einen Sieg auf Write-In-Stimmen angewiesen gewesen.\nWahltag\nDer 44. Präsident Barack Obama beim Wahltag am 4. November 2008\nDie Wahl zum Präsidenten findet stets am ersten Dienstag nach dem 1. November statt, also am 2. bis 8. November, in einem Jahr, das ohne Rest durch vier teilbar ist (1788, 1792, …, 2016, 2020, 2024 usw.). Dieser Tag hat folgenden Hintergrund: Zum einen sollte die Wahl nach der Ernte stattfinden. Zum anderen sollten die Wahllokale aufgesucht werden können, ohne auf den sonntäglichen Kirchgang zu verzichten. Da in der Gründerzeit die Wahllokale häufig weit entfernt waren, erschien der Dienstag als sinnvoller Tag, um die Lokale nach dem Kirchgang erreichen zu können. Da bei Rücktritt oder Tod des Amtsinhabers die Nachfolge geregelt und keine vorgezogene Neuwahl vorgesehen ist, werden die Wahlen schon seit Gründung der Vereinigten Staaten immer in diesem Turnus durchgeführt. Ein Termin gegen Ende des Jahres wurde schon von Anfang an gewählt. Die aktuelle Regelung besteht seit 1845. Zuvor fanden die Wahlen nicht am selben Tag, sondern über einen längeren Zeitraum von ungefähr Ende Oktober bis Anfang Dezember statt.\nIn der Regel haben nur die zwei Vorschläge der beiden großen Parteien eine Chance auf den Wahlsieg. Zwar wechselten die Parteien in den ersten 100 Jahren des Bestehens der USA mehrfach, aber noch nie konnte eine der schwächeren Parteien mehr als einen Achtungserfolg erzielen.\nDie Wähler stimmen für eines der möglichen aus Präsidentschaftskandidat und Vizepräsidentschaftskandidat bestehenden tickets. Bei der Entscheidung, wer zum Präsidenten (und zum Vizepräsidenten) gewählt ist, zählt jedoch nicht, wer bundesweit die meisten Wählerstimmen erhalten hat. Vielmehr wird diese Entscheidung einem Wahlkollegium überlassen, dem sogenannten Electoral College. Dieses besteht aus 538 Personen, die von den Wählern in den einzelnen Bundesstaaten und im Bundesdistrikt gewählt werden. Diese Zahl entspricht der Gesamtzahl der Abgeordneten im Repräsentantenhaus (435) und im Senat (100) sowie dreier Wahlmänner für den sonst im Kongress nicht vertretenen Regierungsbezirk Washington, D.C.\nMit Ausnahme der Staaten Nebraska und Maine, wo ein Teil der Wahlmänner mit einfacher Mehrheit einzeln nach Wahlbezirken gewählt wird, entfallen alle Wahlmänner aus einem Bundesstaat auf den Vorschlag, der in jenem Bundesstaat die meisten Stimmen erhalten hat. Hierdurch reicht schon ein knapper Sieg in einem Bundesstaat, um alle dessen Wahlmännerstimmen zu erhalten. Zudem kommt kleinen Staaten ein größeres relatives Stimmgewicht zu – so hat der bevölkerungsreichste Staat Kalifornien (55 Wahlmännerstimmen) zwar gemäß Bevölkerungszählung 2010 die 66,1-fache Einwohnerzahl des bevölkerungsärmsten Staates Wyoming (3 Wahlmännerstimmen), aber nur die 18,3-fache Wahlmännerstimmenzahl.\nDurch diese Besonderheiten kann es vorkommen, dass ein Präsidentschaftskandidat zwar mehr Stimmen erhalten hat als sein Konkurrent, aber dennoch weniger Wahlmänner zugesprochen bekommt und somit auch nicht gewählt wird. Dies kam bislang bei den Wahlen 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000 und 2016 vor.\nDer offensichtliche Gewinner am Wahltag wird, bis er seine erste Amtsperiode antritt, als President-elect (deutsch: „gewählter Präsident“) tituliert.\nPräsidentschaftsübergang\n→ Hauptartikel: Präsidentschaftsübergang der Vereinigten Staaten\nZwischen Wahl und Amtseinführung wird, sofern ein neuer Präsident gewählt wurde, ein Regierungswechsel vorbereitet. Als politischer Prozess wurde dieser 1963 mit dem Presidential Transition Act of 1963 Pub.L. 88-277 gesetzlich eingeführt, um bei der Machtübergabe eine gute Staatsführung zu gewährleisten. Verschiedene Gesetze sind darauf ausgerichtet, dem President-elect die Einarbeitung in das Amt zu erleichtern, und enthalten Nachfolgeregelungen für den Fall seiner Nichtwählbarkeit durch das Wahlmännerkollegium.\nWahlmännerkollegium\n→ Hauptartikel: Electoral College\nVerteilung der Wahlmänner für die Präsidentschaftswahlen 2012 bis 2020\nVon der Öffentlichkeit weitgehend unbeachtet, treffen sich die Wahlmänner der Staaten in den einzelnen Bundesstaaten im Dezember nach der Wahl zur Stimmabgabe: Das 538-köpfige Wahlmännerkollegium tritt als solches also nie zusammen. Die Wahlmänner geben ihre Stimmen für Präsident und Vizepräsident getrennt ab. Sie sind zwar gehalten, die Stimme demjenigen Kandidaten zu geben, auf dessen Konto sie gewählt wurden; das wird jedoch durch die geheime Wahl oder durch sehr niedrige Strafen im Falle des Nichteinhaltens nicht garantiert. Aus diesem Grund kommt es regelmäßig vor, dass einzelne Wahlmänner entgegen dem Wählerauftrag stimmen. Allerdings hat ein solcher faithless elector (untreuer Wahlmann) noch nie dazu geführt, dass der andere Kandidat gewählt wurde.\nBis 1800 wurden Präsident und Vizepräsident nicht getrennt gewählt, sondern der Erstplatzierte wurde Präsident, der zweite Vizepräsident. Nachdem die Wahl 1800 zu einem Gleichstand zwischen Thomas Jefferson und Aaron Burr geführt hatte, wurde diese Regel durch den 1804 in Kraft getretenen 12. Verfassungszusatz geändert.\nAuszählung und Vereidigung\n→ Siehe auch: Präsidentschaftswahl in den Vereinigten Staaten, Auszählung der Stimmen\n→ Hauptartikel: Amtseinführung des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nLyndon B. Johnson legt am 22. November 1963 den Eid ab, zwei Stunden nachdem sein Vorgänger John F. Kennedy ermordet wurde. Rechts neben Johnson an Bord des Präsidentenflugzeugs steht die Witwe Kennedys.\nAnfang Januar nach der Wahl werden die Stimmabgaben der Wahlmänner in den 51 Gebietseinheiten dann in einer seltenen gemeinsamen Sitzung von Senat und Repräsentantenhaus ausgezählt. Diese Aufgabe kommt dem Präsidenten des Senats, also dem noch amtierenden Vizepräsidenten, zu. Nach Ende der Auszählung verkündet dieser, wer zum Präsidenten und zum Vizepräsidenten gewählt worden ist. Hat keiner der Kandidaten eine absolute Mehrheit der Wahlmännerstimmen (also 270) auf sich vereinigt, so wählt gegebenenfalls das Repräsentantenhaus den Präsidenten und der Senat den Vizepräsidenten. Im Repräsentantenhaus gilt dabei ein spezieller Wahlmodus. Die Abgeordneten eines Staates haben gemeinsam eine Stimme, die sie einem der drei Kandidaten mit den meisten Stimmen im Wahlmännerkollegium geben müssen. Können sie sich nicht einigen, gibt der Staat keine Stimme ab. Der Kandidat, der die Mehrheit der Staaten (derzeit 26) hinter sich vereinigen kann, ist zum Präsidenten gewählt. Ein solcher Fall ist jedoch angesichts der meist eindeutigen Zweiteilung des amerikanischen Parteiensystems seit rund zweihundert Jahren nicht mehr vorgekommen. Der letzte Präsident, der durch das Repräsentantenhaus gewählt wurde, war John Quincy Adams im Jahr 1824, nachdem die damalige Wahl keine eindeutige Mehrheit der Wahlmännerstimmen erbracht hatte. Bis zur Verabschiedung des 20. Verfassungszusatzes fand diese Wahl im scheidenden Kongress statt, seitdem ist das neu gewählte Repräsentantenhaus zuständig. Da der District of Columbia kein Staat ist und im Repräsentantenhaus nur einen nicht stimmberechtigten Abgeordneten hat, verliert er in diesem Wahlverfahren wieder sein Stimmrecht.\nAm auf die Wahl folgenden 20. Januar schließlich wird zunächst der Vizepräsident, dann der Präsident um genau 12.00 Uhr Ortszeit in der Bundeshauptstadt vereidigt. Zwischen Volkswahl im November und Vereidigung liegen also über zwei Monate. Das hat den Hintergrund, dass es noch Wahlmodalitäten gibt und der Gewählte (president-elect) seine Regierungsmannschaft noch zusammenstellen muss. In früheren Zeiten dauerte das zum Teil lange Reisen noch wesentlich länger als heute, darum fand bis einschließlich 1933 die Vereidigung sogar erst am 4. März statt. Mit dem 20. Verfassungszusatz wurde das Datum dann auf den 20. Januar verlegt.\nDer Eid lautet:\n“I do solemnly swear (or: affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”\n„Ich schwöre (oder: gelobe) feierlich, dass ich das Amt des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten getreulich ausüben und die Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten nach besten Kräften erhalten, schützen und verteidigen werde.“\nTraditionellerweise nennt der Präsident nach „I“ seinen Namen, legt den Eid auf eine Bibel ab und fügt die Worte „so help me God“ („so wahr mir Gott helfe“) hinzu; das gehört aber nicht zur verfassungsmäßig vorgeschriebenen Eidesformel.[5]\nWenn nach dem Tod des Präsidenten der Vizepräsident zu vereidigen ist, erfolgt die Vereidigung gewöhnlich umgehend: Lyndon B. Johnson wurde bereits wenige Stunden nach dem Attentat auf seinen Vorgänger John F. Kennedy an Bord der Air Force One vereidigt. Calvin Coolidge, der im Sommer 1923 bei Eintreffen der Nachricht vom Tode seines Vorgängers Warren G. Harding gerade auf Heimaturlaub war, wurde von seinem anwesenden Vater, einem Friedensrichter und Notar, vereidigt.\nAmtszeit\nPräsidenten-Gruppenbild vom 4. November 1991: Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, George Bush Sr., Ronald Reagan und Jimmy Carter\nPräsidenten-Gruppenbild vom 7. Januar 2009: George Bush Sr., Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton und Jimmy Carter\nDie Amtszeit des Präsidenten beträgt vier Jahre. Sie beginnt am 20. Januar um 12:00 Uhr und endet nach vier Jahren wieder um dieselbe Zeit. Ein Präsident kann maximal zwei Amtszeiten absolvieren (siehe unten). Die Amtszeit kann durch Rücktritt oder Tod vorzeitig enden.\nNachfolge bei vorzeitigem Amtsende\n→ Hauptartikel: Nachfolge des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nScheidet der Präsident vorzeitig aus dem Amt aus, so wird der Vizepräsident sofort neuer Präsident. Dessen Amtszeit endet mit dem ursprünglichen Ende der Amtszeit des Vorgängers. Scheidet der Vizepräsident vorher aus dem Amt, so kann der Präsident gemäß dem 25. Verfassungszusatz mit Zustimmung von Senat und Repräsentantenhaus einen neuen Vizepräsidenten ernennen.\nGibt es zum Zeitpunkt der Vakanz des Präsidentenamtes trotzdem keinen Vizepräsidenten, so regelt der Presidential Succession Act, dass der Sprecher des Repräsentantenhauses geschäftsführender Präsident wird. Steht auch dieser nicht zur Verfügung, sind der Präsident pro tempore des Senats der Vereinigten Staaten und dann die Kabinettsmitglieder die nächsten in der Reihe.\nMöglichkeit der Wiederwahl\nVor 1951 gab es noch keine formelle Beschränkung der Wiederwahl. Allerdings hatte der erste Präsident, George Washington, auf eine dritte Amtszeit verzichtet, was von fast allen seinen Nachfolgern als Tradition beibehalten wurde. Nur Ulysses S. Grant, der sich (nachdem er 1876 zunächst nicht erneut angetreten war) im Jahr 1880 um eine dritte Amtszeit bemühte, aber von seiner Partei nicht als Kandidat aufgestellt wurde, Theodore Roosevelt, der 1912 (vergeblich) für eine dritte Amtszeit kandidierte, und Franklin D. Roosevelt hielten sich nicht an diese Tradition. Letzterer kandidierte erfolgreich 1940 für eine dritte und 1944 für eine vierte Amtszeit; er starb im April 1945 im Amt. Woodrow Wilson hatte über eine dritte Amtszeit nachgedacht; auch angesehen davon, dass diese Überlegungen von führenden Politikern seiner Partei nicht geteilt wurden, machte in der zweiten Hälfte seiner zweiten Amtszeit ein Schlaganfall, der seine Amtsführung stark einschränkte, diese Pläne obsolet.\nIm Jahr 1947 initiierte der Kongress den Verfassungszusatz, der nur noch die einmalige Wiederwahl zulässt. Er trat als 22. Verfassungszusatz im Jahr 1951 in Kraft, als wie von der Verfassung verlangt drei Viertel der Bundesstaaten ihre Zustimmung gegeben hatten. Seitdem darf ein Präsident nur einmal wiedergewählt werden. Dabei ist es belanglos, ob die bisherigen Amtszeiten direkt aufeinander gefolgt sind oder nicht. Allerdings ist es dennoch möglich, dass eine Person länger als acht Jahre Präsident ist. Scheidet der Präsident vorzeitig aus dem Amt aus, wird der Vizepräsident zum neuen Präsidenten und vollendet die angebrochene vierjährige Amtszeit seines Vorgängers. Dieser Vizepräsident darf sich zur Wiederwahl stellen, wenn er von den vier Jahren nicht mehr als zwei amtiert hat.\nEine Person kann also höchstens knapp zehn Jahre Präsident sein: Die knapp zwei Jahre, die ein Vizepräsident als Nachrücker amtiert hat, und dann zwei volle eigene Amtszeiten. Im ungünstigsten Fall kann so ein Vizepräsident nur etwas mehr als sechs Jahre lang Präsident sein:\nSo hätte Präsident Lyndon B. Johnson im Jahr 1968 erneut kandidieren dürfen. Johnson hatte ab 1961 als Vizepräsident unter John F. Kennedy gedient. Nach Kennedys Ermordung im November 1963 amtierte Johnson weniger als zwei Jahre als Präsident. Daraufhin gewann Johnson 1964 die Wahl für eine eigene Amtszeit (1965–1969). Johnson gab am 31. März 1968 bekannt, nicht zur Wahl 1968 anzutreten.\nAnders sah es im Fall von Gerald Ford aus. Die Amtsperiode seines Vorgängers Richard Nixon hätte normalerweise von 1973 bis 1977 gedauert. Bereits im August 1974 trat Nixon zurück, und Ford wurde Präsident. Er amtierte dann für mehr als zwei Jahre in jener Amtsperiode. Hätte Ford die Wahl 1976 gewonnen (er verlor gegen Jimmy Carter), hätte er 1980 nicht mehr kandidieren können.\nUmstritten ist es, ob eine Person ihre Amtszeit noch auf andere Weise verlängern kann. So besagt der Wortlaut des Verfassungszusatzes, dass eine Person nicht mehr als zweimal ins Präsidentenamt gewählt werden darf. Es ist jedoch möglich, noch auf andere Wege ins Amt zu gelangen. Wenn ein Präsident vorzeitig das Amt beendet, wird der Vizepräsident zum Nachfolger. Ist dies nicht möglich, wird der Sprecher des Repräsentantenhauses neuer Präsident.\nAllerdings besagt der 12. Verfassungszusatz: Eine Person ist nur dann zum Vizepräsidenten wählbar, wenn sie auch zum Präsidentenamt wählbar ist. Daraus ließe sich logisch folgern, dass ein ehemaliger Präsident, der nicht mehr als Präsident kandidieren darf, auch kein Kandidat für die Vizepräsidentschaft sein darf. Ein solcher Vizepräsident könnte bei Bedarf nämlich nicht den Präsidenten ersetzen. Diese Interpretation ist aber umstritten, denn man könnte argumentieren, dass ein Vizepräsident eben nicht der Präsident ist und auch nicht werden muss.[6][7][8] Da bisher kein ehemaliger Präsident als Vizepräsident kandidiert hat, wurde die Frage noch nicht höchstrichterlich überprüft.\nHillary Clinton, die 2016 als Präsidentschaftskandidatin der Demokraten gegen Donald Trump antrat, hatte nach eigenen Angaben zunächst erwogen, ihren Ehemann Bill Clinton als Vizepräsidenten zu nominieren. Bill Clinton hatte 1993 bis 2001 als Präsident gedient. Ihr sei von dem Plan abgeraten worden, weil er verfassungswidrig sei.[9]\nAmtsenthebung\nSiehe auch: Amtsenthebungsverfahren#Vereinigte Staaten\nDer Kongress kann durch ein Amtsenthebungsverfahren (Impeachment) den Präsidenten seines Amtes entheben. Als mögliche Gründe für ein solches Verfahren werden in der Verfassung Verrat, Bestechung und andere „High Crimes and Misdemeanors“ genannt. Letzterer Begriff stammt aus dem englischen Recht und beinhaltete zu der Zeit, als die Verfassung geschrieben wurde, allgemein Amtsmissbrauch und Fehlverhalten in öffentlichen Ämtern. Wenn durch das Repräsentantenhaus in einfacher Mehrheit ein Beschluss zum Impeachment gefasst wurde, wird vom Senat nach einem gerichtsartigen Verfahren ein Urteil gefällt – der Präsident kann mit einer Zweidrittelmehrheit des Amtes enthoben werden.\nIn der US-Geschichte wurden drei Impeachment-Verfahren gegen US-Präsidenten durchgeführt, welche allesamt scheiterten: die Verfahren gegen Andrew Johnson 1868, Bill Clinton 1999 und das Amtsenthebungsverfahren gegen Donald Trump 2020[10] endeten jeweils mit einem Freispruch. Bei Johnson wurde zwar eine deutliche Mehrheit erreicht, aber die Zweidrittelmehrheit wurde knapp verfehlt. Bei Clinton und Trump wurde im Senat auch keine einfache Mehrheit erreicht. Das zweite Amtsenthebungsverfahren gegen Donald Trump wurde am 6. Januar 2021 nach der gewaltsamen Erstürmung des Kapitols in Washington eingeleitet, also kurz vor dem regulären Ende seiner Amtszeit.\nIm Jahr 1974 stand Präsident Richard Nixon wegen der Watergate-Affäre unter Druck. Allerdings gab es kein Impeachment-Verfahren. Damals behandelte zwar bereits der zuständige Ausschuss des Repräsentantenhauses die Frage. Es zeichnete sich eine Mehrheit für eine Anklageerhebung ab. Nixon kam einer wahrscheinlichen Verurteilung jedoch zuvor, indem er zurücktrat.\nErklärung der Amtsunfähigkeit\nDer Präsident kann auch für amtsunfähig erklärt werden. Dies kann er selbst tun, woraufhin der Vizepräsident das Amt kommissarisch ausübt, bis der Präsident sich wieder als amtsfähig erklärt. Dies ist schon mehrfach vorgekommen, wenn der Präsident sich medizinischen Behandlungen unterzog, die eventuell zu vorübergehender Amtsunfähigkeit führen konnten.\nDer Vizepräsident und eine Mehrheit des Kabinetts können den Präsidenten ebenfalls für amtsunfähig erklären. Sie erklären dies schriftlich gegenüber dem Sprecher des Hauses und dem president pro tempore des Senates. Die Befugnisse des Präsidenten gehen dann auf den Vizepräsidenten über. Der Präsident kann danach dennoch erklären, dass er amtsfähig sei und seine Befugnisse nach vier Tagen Wartezeit wieder übernehmen. Erneuern der Vizepräsident und die Mehrheit des Kabinetts ihre Erklärung, muss der Kongress innerhalb von 21 Tagen entscheiden. Die Erklärung der Amtsunfähigkeit kann dann nur durch eine Zweidrittelmehrheit in beiden Kammern des Kongresses aufrechterhalten werden.\nAusschlaggebend für diese Regelung, die auf das Anfang 1965 initiierte und 1967 in Kraft getretene 25. Amendment zurückgeht, war der Kalte Krieg im Allgemeinen, der jederzeit rasche und verlässliche Entscheidungen von zuständiger Stelle erfordern konnte, und das Attentat auf John F. Kennedy im Besonderen. Den Initiatoren stand dabei die durch einen Anschlag bedingte, bis zu seinem Tod gut zweieinhalb Monate anhaltende Amtsunfähigkeit James A. Garfields im Jahr 1881 und die von einem Schlaganfall herrührende schwere Beeinträchtigung der Amtsfähigkeit Woodrow Wilsons vom Oktober 1919 bis März 1921 vor Augen. In beiden Fällen hatte sich gezeigt, dass der jeweilige Vizepräsident ablehnte, Schritte zu unternehmen, um zumindest die Vertretung zu übernehmen - und zwar nicht nur wegen der Unklarheiten, wer bei Ausfall des Präsident zur Geschäftsführung berufen war, sondern (gerade aufgrund dieser Unsicherheit) auch aus Sorge, als \"Usurpator\" zu gelten. Chester A. Arthur, Vizepräsident unter James A. Garfield, wurde von Mitgliedern des Kongresses gedrängt, die Geschäftsführung zu übernehmen, weigerte sich jedoch und verbrachte den Sommer 1881 in seiner New Yorker Wohnung, wo er nach dem Tode Garfields auch vereidigt wurde; Thomas R. Marshall, Vizepräsident unter Woodrow Wilson, wurde zwar nicht in die ganze Wahrheit über den Zustand des Präsidenten eingeweiht, er vermied es allerdings, sich genauer danach zu erkundigen, aus der Befürchtung heraus, man würde ihn beschuldigen, \"sich nach seinem [Wilsons] Platz zu sehnen\" (longing for his place).[11] Im ersten Falle wurde das Vakuum praktisch gar nicht ausgefüllt, im zweiten Falle in problematischer Weise - nicht zuletzt durch die Tätigkeit der First Lady Edith Wilson, die unter anderem darüber entschied, welche Angelegenheiten ihrem Ehemann unterbreitet wurden.\nDie Amtszeit eines geschäftsführenden Präsidenten (siehe oben) ist ebenfalls begrenzt. Die Person bleibt so lange im Amt, bis ein gewählter Präsident das Amt antritt (das maximal bis zur nächsten Wahl). Ist ein geschäftsführender Präsident wegen einer vorübergehenden Amtsunfähigkeit sowohl des Präsidenten als auch des Vizepräsidenten im Amt, endet die Amtszeit automatisch, sobald einer der beiden wieder amtsfähig ist. Die 2-Jahres-Regelung zum Vizepräsidenten gilt für geschäftsführende Präsidenten sinngemäß.\nEntlohnung und Privilegien\nDem ersten Präsidenten, George Washington, stand ein jährliches Gehalt in Höhe von 25.000 US-Dollar zu, das er als wohlhabender Mann nicht annahm. Seit 2001 erhält der Präsident ein Gehalt in Höhe von 400.000 US-Dollar pro Jahr. Donald Trump hatte nach seinem Wahlsieg im Herbst 2016 angekündigt, nach seinem Amtsantritt auf ein Präsidentengehalt zu verzichten und lediglich symbolisch einen Dollar pro Jahr anzunehmen, was er nach einem großen Mediendruck auch tat. Vor ihm hatten bereits Herbert Hoover und John F. Kennedy ihr Gehalt gespendet.[12]\nDie heutigen Präsidenten können im Weißen Haus leben und arbeiten, allerdings wird ihnen die private Nutzung der Küche in Rechnung gestellt – es sei denn, es handelt sich um ein offizielles Staatsbankett. Sie können an Bord der Air Force One und anderer dem Präsidenten zur Verfügung stehender Verkehrsmittel alle Dinge erledigen, die zur Erfüllung ihrer Aufgaben notwendig sind. Ferner steht dem Amtsinhaber der Landsitz des Präsidenten in Camp David zur Verfügung, auf den auch ausländische Würdenträger häufig eingeladen werden. Der Präsident und seine Familie werden jederzeit vom Secret Service beschützt.\nTraditionell dient das Gehalt des Präsidenten, des höchsten Amtsträgers in den Vereinigten Staaten, als Obergrenze für die Bezahlung von Regierungsangestellten. Daher musste 2001, als sich das Gehalt von hohen Beamten dem des Präsidenten immer weiter annäherte, die Entlohnung des Präsidenten angehoben werden, um diese Beamten weiterhin nach diesem Muster bezahlen zu können.\nAuch frühere Präsidenten und ihre Familie erhalten bis zum Tod des Präsidenten Personenschutz; von 1997 bis 2013 galt dies nur für höchstens zehn Jahre nach dem Ausscheiden aus dem Amt. Hinzu kommen Leistungen wie ein kostenloses Büro, ein Diplomatenpass und Haushaltsmittel für Bürohilfe und Assistenten. Im Jahr 2020 betrug die Pension 205.700 US-Dollar pro Jahr.[13][14] Grundlage für die Ansprüche nach der Präsidentschaft ist der 1958 verabschiedete Former Presidents Act. Er wurde erlassen, als bekannt wurde, dass der 1953 aus dem Amt geschiedene Harry S. Truman lediglich etwas mehr als 100 Dollar Pensionsgelder aus seiner Zeit bei den Streitkräften erhielt.\nPräsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten erhalten auch nach ihrer Amtszeit Briefings der US-amerikanischen Geheimdienste.[15]\nAmtssitz\nDas Weiße Haus, Amtssitz des Präsidenten\nDas Oval Office, Arbeitszimmer des Präsidenten. Hier während der Amtszeit von Jimmy Carter im Jahr 1978\nDer Präsident hat seinen traditionellen Amtssitz im Weißen Haus in Washington. Das Haus, mit dessen Grundsteinlegung 1792 die Stadtbebauung der heutigen amerikanischen Hauptstadt begann, steht seit 1800 dem amerikanischen Präsidenten und seiner Familie zur Verfügung. Es wurde 1814 im Britisch-Amerikanischen Krieg zerstört und 1819 wiederaufgebaut.\nDas Oval Office im Westflügel des Weißen Hauses, das Arbeitszimmer des US-Präsidenten, wird durch umfangreiche Sicherheitsmaßnahmen geschützt. Ein Bunker unter dem Ostflügel des Weißen Hauses, das Presidential Emergency Operations Center, schützt den Präsidenten und seinen Stab in Notfällen.\nProtokollarische Ehren\nDer Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten führt keine weiteren Titel – die protokollarisch korrekte Anrede ist schlicht The President bzw. Mister President.\nDie Frage, mit welchen protokollarischen Ehren und Titeln der Präsident zu bedenken sei, war eine der ersten Fragen, die den ersten Kongress im Frühjahr und Sommer 1789 beschäftigten. Insbesondere Vizepräsident John Adams sowie die Mehrheit der Senatoren sprachen sich für die Einführung von Titeln aus. So schlug ein Senatskomitee die Anrede „His Highness the President of the United States of America, and Protector of their Liberties“ vor, und einer verbreiteten, aber wohl unwahren Legende zufolge soll Washington selbst die Anrede „His High Mightiness“ („Mightiness“, dt. Mächtigkeit/Gewaltigkeit) favorisiert haben. Die Mehrheit des Repräsentantenhauses weigerte sich jedoch, jegliche Titel einzuführen, die nicht von der Verfassung vorgesehen waren, so dass bis heute die bloße Amtsbezeichnung auch die korrekte Anrede darstellt.\nHail to the Chief, gespielt von der U.S. Army Ceremonial Band\nBei öffentlichen Auftritten des Präsidenten erklingt – wie vom Verteidigungsministerium 1952 festgelegt – als Präsidialsalut nach vier ruffles and flourishes (Trommelwirbel und Fanfaren) die Melodie, selten das Lied „Hail to the Chief“. Stattdessen kann auch das Abspielen der Nationalhymne „The Star-Spangled Banner“ erfolgen.[16]\nTransportmittel\nDie Air Force One ist das primäre Flugzeug des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten (hier über dem Mount Rushmore, 2001)\nUm auch während der Abwesenheit vom Amtssitz die Amtsgeschäfte wahrnehmen zu können, kann der Präsident unter anderem auf zwei besonders ausgestattete Flugzeuge vom Typ Boeing VC-25A zurückgreifen. Sie sind im Volksmund als „Air Force One“ bekannt. Allerdings ist diese Bezeichnung nicht diesen zwei Flugzeugen fest zugewiesen. Vielmehr erhält jedes Luftfahrzeug der amerikanischen Luftstreitkräfte den Rufnamen „Air Force One“, sobald sich der Präsident an Bord befindet. Luftfahrzeuge des Marine Corps erhalten den Rufnamen „Marine One“. Diesen Rufnamen erhält derzeit der Hubschrauber, welchen der Präsident hauptsächlich für den Transport vom Weißen Haus zur Andrews Air Force Base (Heimatflugplatz der Regierungsflugzeuge) verwendet. Der vorher für diesen Zweck verwendete Hubschrauber des Heeres trug analog den Rufnamen „Army One“. „Navy One“ und Coast Guard One sind die entsprechenden Rufnamen für Luftfahrzeuge der Marine und der Küstenwache. Navy One wurde erstmals verwendet, als George W. Bush 2003 den Flugzeugträger „USS Abraham Lincoln“ mit einem Düsenflugzeug der Navy besuchte. Coast Guard One wurde bislang noch nicht verwendet. Executive One ist der Rufname für Zivilflugzeuge, bei denen sich der Präsident an Bord befindet.\nAls Dienstwagen steht dem Präsidenten ein Cadillac DTS der Version 2006 zur Verfügung, inoffiziell auch als „Cadillac One“ bezeichnet. Der Cadillac von Ex-Präsident Obama trägt auch den Spitznamen „The Beast“.[17]\nVerschiedenes\nWahl\n→ Hauptartikel: Präsidentschaftswahl in den Vereinigten Staaten\nAufgrund des Wahlmännersystems kann es vorkommen, dass ein Kandidat Präsident wird, obwohl sein Gegenkandidat mehr Stimmen erhalten hat (siehe Popular Vote):\n1824 – John Quincy Adams hatte 44.804 Stimmen weniger als Andrew Jackson\n1876 – Rutherford B. Hayes hatte 264.292 Stimmen weniger als Samuel J. Tilden\n1888 – Benjamin Harrison hatte 95.713 Stimmen weniger als Grover Cleveland\n2000 – George W. Bush hatte 540.520 Stimmen weniger als Al Gore\n2016 – Donald Trump hatte etwa 2,85 Millionen Stimmen weniger als Hillary Clinton[18]\nGeorge Washington vereinte bei den beiden ersten Präsidentschaftswahlen (1789 und 1792) jeweils sämtliche Wahlmännerstimmen auf sich, was nach ihm keinem Präsident mehr gelang, wenngleich bei acht weiteren Wahlen Wahlmänner-Stimmanteile von mehr als 90 % erreicht wurden – darunter James Monroe 1820 (231 Wahlmännerstimmen bei einer Gegenstimme, 99,57 %), Franklin D. Roosevelt 1936 (523 zu 8, 98,49 %), Ronald Reagan 1984 (525 zu 13, 97,58 %) und Richard Nixon 1972 (520 zu 17, 96,65 %). Am anderen Ende der Skala findet sich die Wahl von 1824, als keiner der Kandidaten die absolute Mehrheit der Wahlmännerstimmen auf sich vereinte und das Repräsentantenhaus John Quincy Adams zum Präsidenten kürte, der bis heute der einzige Präsident ist, der ohne Mehrheit der Wahlmänner in dieses Amt gelangte. Rutherford B. Hayes wurde mit der denkbar knappsten Mehrheit von einer einzigen Wahlmännerstimme gewählt, was allerdings auch auf die Besonderheiten der Wahl von 1876 zurückzuführen war, als es bei zunächst unklarem Wahlausgang und unklarer Zusammensetzung des Wahlmännerkollegiums zu einem Konflikt kam, der letzten Endes durch einen Kompromiss beigelegt wurde. In mehreren weiteren Wahlen wurden nur knappe Mehrheiten an Wahlmännern erzielt, so etwa im Jahr 2000, als George W. Bush auf 271 zu 266 Wahlmännerstimmen kam, und 1796, als John Adams 71 zu 68 Wahlmännerstimmen erzielte. Im Falle der Wahl von 1800 kam es zu einem Gleichstand zwischen Thomas Jefferson und Aaron Burr, wonach Jefferson nach sechsunddreißig Wahlgängen im Repräsentantenhaus zum Präsidenten gewählt wurde.\nGerald Ford war vom 9. August 1974 bis zum 20. Januar 1977 Präsident, ohne je vom amerikanischen Volk als Präsident oder Vizepräsident gewählt worden zu sein. Präsident Richard Nixon hatte Ford für das Amt des Vizepräsidenten nominiert, nachdem Spiro Agnew am 10. Oktober 1973 nach Korruptionsvorwürfen zurückgetreten war. Ein knappes Jahr später, als Nixon aufgrund der Watergate-Affäre selbst zurückgetreten war, rückte Ford ins Präsidentenamt auf. Er kandidierte 1976 für eine zweite Amtszeit und verlor diese Wahl gegen den Demokraten Jimmy Carter.\nBarack Obama ist der erste afroamerikanische Politiker, der von einer großen Partei nominiert wurde, und auch der einzige, der zum Präsidenten gewählt wurde. Vor ihm bemühten sich Shirley Chisholm bei der Wahl 1972 und Jesse Jackson bei den Wahlen 1984 und 1988 vergeblich um die Nominierung ihrer Partei. Schwarze Präsidentschaftskandidaten waren indessen bereits früher angetreten, der erste war George Edwin Taylor[19], der bei der Wahl 1904 als Kandidat der \"National Negro Liberty Party\" aufgestellt wurde. Bei allen Präsidentschaftswahlen seit 1960 (mit Ausnahme der Wahl von 1972) traten schwarze Kandidaten an, wurden allerdings bis zur Kandidatur Barack Obamas ausschließlich von Splitterparteien wie beispielsweise der Socialist Workers Party oder der New Alliance Party unterstützt. Bei der Präsidentschaftswahl von 2016 erhielt Colin Powell, obwohl er nicht als Kandidat angetreten war, drei Wahlmännerstimmen.\nAls erste Frau kandidierte 1872 – lange bevor Frauen in den USA auf Bundesebene das aktive Wahlrecht hatten – Victoria Woodhull für die Präsidentschaft. Danach wurden (in den Wahlen von 1884, 1888, 1940 und 1952) vereinzelt und seit der Wahl von 1968 regelmäßig Frauen von Splitterparteien als Kandidatinnen aufgestellt. Nachdem sich in den Wahlen von 1964 und 1972 je zwei Frauen vergeblich darum bemühten, von einer der großen Parteien als Kandidatin aufgestellt zu werden, dauerte es bis 1996, bis sich wiederum zwei Frauen um die Nominierung als Präsidentschaftskandidatin der Demokraten bewarben. 2016 war Hillary Clinton die erste Frau, die von einer der beiden großen Parteien für das Präsidentenamt nominiert wurde. Edith Wilson, zweite Ehefrau Woodrow Wilsons, nahm während der (in ihrem ganzen Ausmaß sogar vor dem Vizepräsidenten und dem Kongress geheim gehaltenen) weitgehenden Amtsunfähigkeit ihres Mannes zahlreiche präsidentielle Aufgaben wahr, was die Entscheidung darüber einschloss, welche Angelegenheiten zur Kenntnis ihres bettlägerigen Mannes gebracht werden sollten. Sie wird daher manchmal als (inoffizieller) \"First Lady President\" oder \"First Female President\" bezeichnet.[20][21]\nDer erste Katholik, der von einer großen Partei zum Präsidentschaftskandidaten aufgestellt wurde, war im Jahr 1928 Alfred E. Smith; als erster Katholik zum Präsident gewählt wurde 1960 John F. Kennedy. 1988 wurde als erster Angehöriger der Griechisch-orthodoxen Kirche Mike Dukakis von den Demokraten aufgestellt. Mitt Romney war - in der Präsidentschaftswahl von 2012 - der erste von einer großen Partei ins Rennen geführte Mormone.\n16 Präsidenten waren zuvor Vizepräsident. Acht (Tyler, Fillmore, A. Johnson, Arthur, T. Roosevelt, Coolidge, Truman, L. Johnson) übernahmen das Amt nach dem Tod des Präsidenten, einer (Ford), weil der Präsident während der Amtszeit zurücktrat. Vier amtierende Vizepräsidenten (J. Adams, Jefferson, van Buren, G. H. W. Bush) wurden in einer regulären Wahl unmittelbar zum Präsidenten gewählt; bei einem Präsidenten (Biden) lagen zwischen dem Ende der Amtszeit als Vizepräsident und dem Beginn der Präsidentschaft vier Jahre, bei Nixon waren es acht Jahre. Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S. Truman und Lyndon B. Johnson waren darüber hinaus die einzigen nachgerückten Vizepräsidenten, die anschließend die nächste Wahl gewannen.\nNur ein einziges Mal – unter Präsident John Adams (einem Föderalisten) – gehörten Präsident und Vizepräsident unterschiedlichen politischen Lagern an, da Adams’ Vizepräsident Thomas Jefferson den Republikaner-Demokraten angehörte. Abraham Lincoln (ein Republikaner) und Andrew Johnson (ein Demokrat des Flügels seiner Partei, der für die Fortsetzung des Bürgerkriegs plädierte) gehörten ebenfalls unterschiedlichen Parteien an, waren aber gemeinsam im Rahmen der Wahlplattform der National Union Party angetreten.\nNur vier Präsidenten wurden bislang ohne die Stimmen der Staaten ihres Wohnorts gewählt: James K. Polk (Tennessee, bei seiner Wahl 1844; er verlor zudem in seinem Geburtsstaat North Carolina), Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey, bei seiner Wiederwahl 1916), Richard Nixon (New York, bei seiner ersten Wahl 1968) sowie Donald Trump (New York, zugleich sein Geburtsstaat, zudem Heimatstaat seiner Gegenkandidatin Hillary Clinton, die den Staat acht Jahre im US-Senat vertrat).\nMitunter machen bei den amerikanischen Vorwahlen - wie das auch in anderen demokratisch verfassten Staaten geschieht - sogenannte \"dark horses\" das Rennen (der Begriff lässt sich auf Deutsch etwa mit \"Außenseiter\" umschreiben). Das sind Kandidaten, die bislang in der Politik keinen Namen hatten, aber dennoch andere, auf politischem Feld nicht selten weitaus renommiertere Rivalen in den Vorwahlen auf die Plätze verweisen. Oft handelt es sich um Lokalpolitiker oder um Politiker aus der zweiten Reihe, es kann sich aber auch um Quereinsteiger handeln, die aus anderen als politischen Zusammenhängen (etwa Militär oder Showbusiness) bekannt sind. Als erstes dark horse, dem es gelang, die Präsidentschaftswahlen zu gewinnen, gilt der bis zu seiner Kandidatur weiten Kreisen unbekannte James K. Polk; auch Präsidenten wie zum Beispiel Abraham Lincoln, Warren C. Harding oder Jimmy Carter lassen sich aus unterschiedlichen Gründen dem Typus des dark horse zurechnen. Die Gründe, ein dark horse als Kandidaten zu benennen, können vielfältig sein:\nOft werden dark horses kompromisshalber oder als Übergangskandidaten nominiert, weil mehrere Flügel einer Partei sich mit ihren jeweiligen Kandidaten gegenseitig in einer Weise blockieren, dass keiner von ihnen zum Zuge kommt. So erfolgte das im Vorfeld der Wahl von 1880 im Falle Ulysses S. Grants, der sich auch nach zahlreichen Abstimmungsrunden nicht gegen James G. Blaine durchsetzen konnte, bis Blaines Delegierte zusammen mit den Delegierten anderer Kandidaten das dark horse James A. Garfield zum Kandidaten der Republikaner kürten.\nEine Chance für dark horses kann sich auch dann auftun, wenn eine Seite in erster Linie darauf abzielt, einen bestimmten Kandidaten der Gegenseite zu \"verhindern\" - wie im Falle Rutherford B. Hayes', der im Vorfeld der Wahl von 1876 als Kandidat nominiert wurde, weil die Gegner des vermeintlich sicheren Siegers James G. Blaine eine Vertagung der Versammlung dazu nutzten, sich auf Hayes zu einigen.\nEin anderer möglicher Grund ist die Unzufriedenheit mit den bekannteren zur Auswahl stehenden Kandidaten bzw. weil ein \"neuer\" Kandidat als besonders zugkräftig oder charismatisch wahrgenommen wird oder in besonderer Weise einem Ideal Ausdruck zu verleihen scheint. Beispiele aus der jüngsten Zeit sind \"Überraschungskandidaten\" wie Barack Obama, der sich bei den Vorwahlen von 2008 gegen die wesentlich bekanntere, als haushoher Favorit geltende Hillary Clinton behaupten konnte, sowie Donald Trump, der bei den Vorwahlen von 2016 trotz des Umstands, dass er politisch ein völlig unbeschriebenes Blatt war, sich gegen alle anderen Kandidaten der Republikaner durchsetzte.\nZwei Präsidenten wurden durch einen ihrer Vorgänger vereidigt: Calvin Coolidge im Jahr 1924 und Herbert Hoover im Jahr 1928. Ihre Vereidigung erfolgte, kraft seines Amtes als Chief Justice, durch den an den Supreme Court gewechselten William H. Taft.\nVier Präsidenten wurden von ihrer jeweiligen Partei nicht wieder für eine Präsidentschaftswahl als Kandidat aufgestellt, obwohl sie sich für eine weitere Kandidatur zur Verfügung stellten oder Interesse anmeldeten. So wurde Martin Van Buren 1844 von den Demokraten nicht wieder als Kandidat aufgestellt; Ulysses S. Grant wurde im Jahr 1880, Herbert Hoover im Jahr 1940 durch die Republikaner eine erneute Kandidatur verweigert. Gerald Ford arbeitete auf eine Nominierung für die Präsidentschaftswahl 1980 hin, nahm aber bereits nicht an den Vorwahlen der Republikaner teil.\nMehrere Präsidenten stellten sich nach ihrer Präsidentschaft mit Unterstützung einer kleineren Partei ein weiteres Mal einer Präsidentschaftswahl: Martin Van Buren im Jahr 1848 als Kandidat der Free Soil Party, Millard Fillmore im Jahr 1856 als Kandidat der Know-Nothing Party und Theodore Roosevelt im Jahr 1912 als Kandidat der Progressive Party (nicht mit weiteren Parteien dieses Namens zu verwechseln, die im Jahr 1924 sowie im Jahr 1948 eigene Präsidentschaftskandidaten stellten).\nAmtsinhaber\nPräsident mit der längsten Amtszeit: Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945)\nPräsident mit der kürzesten Amtszeit: William Henry Harrison (4. März–4. April 1841)\nGrover Cleveland absolvierte als einziger Präsident zwei Amtszeiten, die nicht aufeinander folgten (1885–1889 und 1893–1897)\n→ Hauptartikel: Liste der Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\n13 Präsidenten gewannen zwei aufeinanderfolgende Wahlen, Franklin D. Roosevelt gewann als einziger vier (aufeinanderfolgende) Wahlen (1932, 1936, 1940 und 1944). Grover Cleveland gewann als einziger Präsident in der Geschichte der USA zwei nicht direkt aufeinanderfolgende Wahlen: Er war von 1885 bis 1889 und erneut von 1893 bis 1897 Präsident und wird deshalb auch zweimal gezählt, nämlich als 22. und 24. Präsident.\nDonald Trump folgte auf drei Präsidenten, die jeweils zwei volle Amtszeiten das Amt des Präsidenten bekleideten. Gleiches geschah zuletzt im Jahr 1825 mit der Wahl John Quincy Adams', dessen Vorgänger Thomas Jefferson, James Madison und James Monroe ebenfalls jeweils zwei volle Amtszeiten ableisteten. Geht man allerdings davon aus, dass der Vorgänger des wiedergewählten William McKinley, Grover Cleveland, trotz seiner zwei getrennten Amtszeiten als wiedergewählt gilt, so ist die Wiederwahl von Theodore Roosevelt als die letzte (vor der Wahl Barack Obamas) anzusehen, in der drei wiedergewählte Präsidenten aufeinander folgten. In den etwa hundert Jahren von der Amtszeit Andrew Jacksons bis zur Amtszeit Franklin D. Roosevelts waren Ulysses S. Grant (von 1869 bis 1877) und Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) die einzigen Präsidenten, die zwei vollständige und aufeinanderfolgende Amtszeiten ableisteten (unbeschadet des Umstands, dass Wilson in den letzten knapp anderthalb Jahren seiner zweiten Amtszeit infolge eines Schlaganfalls nur sehr eingeschränkt amtsfähig war).\nMit einem Monat die kürzeste Amtszeit hatte 1841 der im Amt verstorbene William Henry Harrison, gefolgt von James A. Garfield, der bis zu seinem Tod 1881 nur gut ein halbes Jahr im Amt war – von dem er infolge des auf ihn verübten Attentats, an dessen Folgen er etwa zweieinhalb Monate später verstarb, nur knapp vier Monate tatsächlich amtsfähig war. Mit 12 Jahren und 39 Tagen am längsten amtierte 1933–1945 der im Amt verstorbene Demokrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, der als einziger viermal gewählt (dreimal wiedergewählt) wurde (1932, 1936, 1940 und 1944).\n„Kurzzeitpräsidentschaften“ oder „Präsidenten für einen Tag“ gibt es nicht und hat es nie gegeben. David Rice Atchison wird nachgesagt, einen Tag lang als Stellvertreter des Senatspräsidenten Präsident gewesen zu sein, da zwischen dem Ende der Amtszeit James K. Polks und der Vereidigung Zachary Taylors ein Tag lag (vom 4. auf den 5. März 1849) und auch die Amtszeiten der Vizepräsidenten bereits beendet waren bzw. noch nicht begonnen hatten (nach der Verfassung in ihrer damaligen Form war der 4. März als Termin für die Vereidigung vorgesehen; der 4. März 1849 war jedoch ein Sonntag und Taylor lehnte es ab, an einem Sonntag vereidigt zu werden). Dies ist aber eine Legende. Auch der 25. Verfassungszusatz von 1967 lässt – anderslautenden Gerüchten zum Trotz – dergleichen nicht zu. Dieses Amendment legt fest, dass der Präsident sich selbst für vorübergehend amtsunfähig erklären und seine Befugnisse auf den Vizepräsidenten übertragen kann, was bisher dreimal geschehen ist, – in den Jahren 1985, 2002 und 2007 (in allen drei Fällen jeweils wegen einer Darmspiegelung). Das bedeutet aber nur, dass seine „Befugnisse und Obliegenheiten vom Vizepräsidenten als amtierendem Präsidenten wahrgenommen“ werden, nicht aber, dass – wie es im Falle des Todes des Präsidenten wörtlich bestimmt ist – „der Vizepräsident Präsident [wird]“. Es gab also 1985 nicht für einige Stunden einen Präsidenten George Bush, und es gab 2002 und 2007 keinen Präsidenten Dick Cheney.\nDass der Vizepräsident nach dem Tode des Präsidenten selbst als Präsident gilt, nicht etwa lediglich als geschäftsführender Präsident, ist auf den ersten nachrückenden Vizepräsidenten überhaupt, John Tyler, zurückzuführen. Nach dem Tode William Henry Harrisons bestand Tyler darauf, dass er selbst Präsident sei – eine Interpretation, die er entscheidend beförderte und die vom 25. Verfassungszusatz zuletzt ausdrücklich anerkannt wurde.\nBis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts entschieden sich Präsidenten, die sich einer Wiederwahl stellten, mitunter für einen anderen Kandidaten für das Amt des Vizepräsidenten. Zum Beispiel trat Abraham Lincoln zu seiner ersten Wahl 1860 mit dem running mate Hannibal Hamlin und zur Wahl 1864 mit Andrew Johnson an, in ähnlicher Weise handelten Thomas Jefferson und Ulysses S. Grant. Während der vier Amtszeiten Franklin D. Roosevelts waren drei verschiedene Vizepräsidenten im Amt (John Nance Garner in den ersten beiden Amtsperioden, Henry A. Wallace in der dritten und Harry S. Truman in der vierten). Seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ist es jedoch unüblich geworden, für den Fall der Wiederwahl den Vizepräsidenten auszutauschen (das erfolgte nur durch Gerald Ford, der bei seinem erfolglosen Wiederwahlversuch 1976 statt mit seinem bisherigen Vizepräsidenten Nelson Rockefeller mit Bob Dole antrat). Der umgekehrte Fall, dass ein Vizepräsident unter verschiedenen Präsidenten amtierte, kam bisher nur zweimal vor, und zwar im Falle George Clintons, der Vizepräsident sowohl unter Thomas Jefferson als auch unter James Madison war, sowie im Falle John C. Calhouns, Vizepräsident unter den Präsidenten John Quincy Adams und Andrew Jackson.\nDie meisten Begnadigungen sprach Franklin D. Roosevelt aus (3687), keine Begnadigungen verfügten William Henry Harrison sowie James A. Garfield - die Zahlen korrelieren allerdings stark mit dem Umstand, dass Franklin D. Roosevelt der am längsten amtierende Präsident war und William Henry Harrison sowie James A. Garfield die beiden kürzesten Amtszeiten der amerikanischen Geschichte aufweisen. Relativ zur Amtszeit gesehen sprach Herbert Hoover (1385 Begnadigungen in einer Amtsperiode) die meisten Begnadigungen aus, wogegen George Washington in seinen zwei Amtsperioden (abgesehen von den beiden erwähnten Sonderfällen W. H. Harrison und Garfield) mit 16 die wenigsten Begnadigungen aussprach. Hinzu kommen Amnestien für größere Personengruppen - in mehreren tausend Fällen für konföderierte Offiziere und Amtsträger durch Andrew Johnson sowie in über 200.000 Fällen für Personen, die sich der Einberufung zum Militärdienst in Vietnam entzogen hatten, durch Jimmy Carter (Proclamation 4483). Joe Biden hat bis September 2021 noch keine Begnadigung verfügt.\nDer erste Präsident, der in offizieller Funktion das Gebiet der USA verließ, war Theodore Roosevelt, der sich 1906 persönlich von den Fortschritten beim Bau des damals unter amerikanischer Hoheit stehenden Panamakanals überzeugte. Sein Nachfolger William H. Taft besuchte im Oktober 1909 als erster amtierender Präsident Mexiko (Ciudad Juárez), Warren G. Harding besuchte 1923 als erster Präsident Kanada (in Vancouver). Woodrow Wilson reiste ab Dezember 1918 für sieben Monate (mit einer kurzen Unterbrechung) als erster amtierender Präsident nach Europa, insbesondere zur Teilnahme an der Pariser Friedenskonferenz 1919. Der letzte Präsident, der keinen Staatsbesuch ableistete, war Herbert Hoover, der allerdings noch als president-elect Mittel und Südamerika bereiste. Die ausgedehntesten Reisetätigkeiten entfalteten bislang Bill Clinton mit 54 Reisen in 72 Länder und George W. Bush mit 48 Reisen in 73 Länder.\nBiographisches\nAußergewöhnlich viele Präsidenten wurden entweder in Virginia (acht) oder Ohio (sieben) geboren. Erster Präsident, der bereits in den USA und nicht noch in den britischen Kolonien geboren worden war, war Martin Van Buren; der erste außerhalb des Gebietes der ursprünglichen dreizehn Staaten geborene Präsident war der in Kentucky geborene Abraham Lincoln. Barack Obama war der erste Präsident, der außerhalb des amerikanischen Festlandes geboren wurde, nämlich auf Hawaii.\nVon den ersten fünf Präsidenten, die zur Generation der Gründerväter zählen, starben drei an einem 4. Juli, dem amerikanischen Unabhängigkeitstag: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson und James Monroe - die beiden erstgenannten sogar am selben Tag, dem 4. Juli 1826, dem 50. Jahrestag der Unabhängigkeitserklärung. Von allen bisherigen US-Präsidenten wurden drei im Jahr 1946 geboren (Bill Clinton, George W. Bush und Donald Trump).\nJoe Biden, der mit 78 Jahren ins Amt des Präsidenten gelangte, ist der bisher älteste Präsident sowohl bei Amtsantritt als auch im Amt überhaupt: Bereits bei Amtsantritt war er älter als der bisherige Rekordhalter Ronald Reagan bei seinem (mit 77 Jahren erfolgten) Ausscheiden aus dem Amt. Der jüngste Präsident war Theodore Roosevelt, der im Alter von 42 Jahren vereidigt wurde. Da Roosevelt als Vizepräsident ohne Wahl ins Amt aufrückte, war John F. Kennedy mit 43 der jüngste direkt ins Amt gewählte Präsident.\nJimmy Carter, der 1981 aus dem Amt schied, hält mit mittlerweile 40 Jahren und 239 Tagen den Rekord für die bisher längste Lebensdauer nach der Präsidentschaft. Zuvor war der 1933 aus dem Amt geschiedene Herbert Hoover Rekordhalter: er starb 11.554 Tage, also über 31 Jahre, später im Jahr 1964. Demgegenüber starb James K. Polk bereits 103 Tage (knapp dreieinhalb Monate) nach Ende seiner Amtszeit, gefolgt von Chester A. Arthur, der das Ende seiner Amtszeit nur um 624 Tage (etwa ein Jahr und achteinhalb Monate) überlebte.\nCarter ist der Ex-Präsident mit dem höchsten Lebensalter – derzeit 96 Jahre und 350 Tage, gefolgt von George H. W. Bush, der im Alter von 94 Jahren und 171 Tagen verstarb (der schon 1826 aufgestellte Altersrekord John Adams', des zweiten Präsidenten, der 90 Jahre und 247 Tage alt wurde, wurde erst etwa 175 Jahre später - im Oktober 2001 - durch Ronald Reagan eingestellt). Die am jüngsten verstorbenen Präsidenten waren John F. Kennedy (46 Jahre) und James A Garfield (49 Jahre), die freilich beide ermordet wurden; der jüngste an einer natürlichen Todesursache verstorbene Präsident war James K. Polk mit 53 Jahren.\nAcht Präsidenten sind im Amt verstorben. Die Hälfte von ihnen (Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley, Kennedy) starb durch Mord mit einer Schusswaffe, an anderen (natürlichen) Todesursachen starben William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding und Franklin D. Roosevelt. Donald Trump war seit Lyndon B. Johnson, der dem 1963 ermordeten Amtsinhaber Kennedy nachfolgte, der zehnte Präsident in Folge, der nicht im Amt verstarb. Damit setzte er die bislang längste Serie nicht im Amt verstorbener Präsidenten fort. Die vordem längste Serie hatte die ersten acht Präsidenten umfasst, von George Washington bis Martin Van Buren, und war 1841 mit dem Tod William Henry Harrisons abgerissen.\nAlle sieben US-Präsidenten, die zwischen 1840 und 1960 in einem auf 0 endenden Jahr gewählt wurden (William Henry Harrison, Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, Warren G. Harding, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy), verstarben im Amt oder wurden ermordet. Dieser Zufall ist als „Tecumsehs Fluch“ bekannt, da William Henry Harrison, der 1840 gewählt wurde, die von Tecumseh geführten Indianer besiegt hatte. Der 1980 gewählte Ronald Reagan war der erste US-Präsident seit dem 1820 gewählten James Monroe, der diesen „Fluch“ überlebte. Zachary Taylor war 1850 der einzige im Amt verstorbene Präsident, der nicht in einem auf 0 endenden Jahr gewählt wurde, nämlich 1848.\nVon den vier Morden an amtierenden Präsidenten abgesehen waren zahlreiche Präsidenten Gegenstand von Attentatsversuchen. In zwei Fällen wurde der Präsident mit Schusswaffen verletzt: Theodore Roosevelt am 14. Oktober 1912 sowie Ronald Reagan am 30. März 1981.\nIm Durchschnitt sind drei oder vier Expräsidenten bei Amtsantritt eines neuen Präsidenten noch am Leben. Die höchste bislang erreichte Zahl bei Amtsantritt eines Präsidenten waren bislang fünf lebende Ex-Präsidenten – das war der Fall bei\nAbraham Lincoln (Martin Van Buren, John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce und James Buchanan),\nBill Clinton (Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush),\nGeorge W. Bush (Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, sein eigener Vater George Bush und Bill Clinton),\nDonald Trump (Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush und Barack Obama) und\nJoe Biden (Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Barack Obama und Donald Trump).\nDass kein Expräsident am Leben ist, ereignet sich mehrfach, aber jeweils nur für kurze Perioden – zuletzt nach dem Tode Lyndon B. Johnsons im Jahr 1973 während der Präsidentschaft Richard Nixons bis zu dessen Rücktritt im Jahr 1974. Davor ereignete sich das zwischen 1799 und 1801 während der Präsidentschaft John Adams' (nach dem Tod George Washingtons), zwischen 1875 und 1877 während der Präsidentschaft Ulysses S. Grants (nach dem Tod Andrew Johnsons), in den Jahren 1908 und 1909 während der Präsidentschaft Theodore Roosevelts (nach dem Tod Grover Clevelands) sowie während der Präsidentschaft Herbert Hoovers (in der Zeit zwischen dem Tod Calvin Coolidges am 5. Januar 1933 und dem Amtsantritt Franklin D. Roosevelts am 4. März 1933, wonach Herbert Hoover zwanzig Jahre lang, von 1933 bis 1953, der einzige lebende Expräsident blieb). Noch nie jedoch wurde – was bei Wiederwahl des Amtsinhabers bei Tod des letzten verbliebenen Expräsidenten während der ersten Amtsperiode des Amtsinhabers theoretisch möglich wäre – eine Amtsperiode ohne lebenden Expräsidenten angetreten. Das war auch 1973 nicht der Fall: Der 1972 wiedergewählte Nixon wurde am 20. Januar 1973 für seine zweite Amtsperiode vereidigt, Johnson verstarb zwei Tage später am 22. Januar 1973.\nEin einziger Präsident wurde in Washington D. C. beerdigt – Woodrow Wilson. Sieben Präsidenten – vier der ersten fünf (mit Ausnahme John Adams') sowie Tyler, Taft und Kennedy – liegen an verschiedenen Orten Virginias begraben, sechs in New York (Van Buren, Fillmore, Grant, Arthur und die beiden Roosevelt), fünf in Ohio (William Harrison, Hayes, Garfield, McKinley, Harding). Drei wurden in Tennessee beerdigt (Jackson, Polk und Andrew Johnson), je zwei in Massachusetts (die beiden Adams), Kalifornien (Nixon und Reagan) und Texas (Lyndon B. Johnson und George H. W. Bush), je einer in Illinois (Lincoln), Indiana (Benjamin Harrison), Iowa (Hoover), Kansas (Eisenhower), Kentucky (Taylor), Michigan (Ford), Missouri (Truman), New Hampshire (Pierce), New Jersey (Cleveland), Pennsylvania (Buchanan) und Vermont (Coolidge).\nMilitärlaufbahn\n31 Präsidenten (von 46) waren beim Militär, davon 30 als Offiziere und einer (James Buchanan) als Private. Zwölf Präsidenten hatten einen Generalsrang, fünf waren Oberst, zwei Commander, drei Major, einer Lieutenant Commander, drei Captain und vier Leutnant/Oberleutnant.\nAls militärisch ranghöchster Präsident gilt George Washington als General of the Armies; der Rang wurde ihm postum verliehen. Ihm folgen in der Historischen Rangordnung der höchsten Offiziere der Vereinigten Staaten:\n2 Generals of the Army Ulysses S. Grant und Dwight D. Eisenhower\n5 Generalmajore: Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield\n4 Brigadegenerale: Franklin Pierce, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur und Benjamin Harrison\n5 Colonels (Oberst): Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James K. Polk, Theodore Roosevelt und Harry S. Truman\n2 Commander (Fregattenkapitän) Lyndon B. Johnson und Richard Nixon\nÄmter\nBislang einziger Präsident, der direkt vom Repräsentantenhaus ins Weiße Haus wechselte: James A. Garfield\nZahlreiche Präsidenten gehörten an einem früheren Punkt ihrer Laufbahn auch dem Kongress an, der sich aus Senat und Repräsentantenhaus zusammensetzt. Dennoch werden nur selten amtierende Kongressangehörige zum Präsidenten gewählt. Nur dreimal wechselten amtierende Senatoren in das Amt des Präsidenten – so geschehen im Fall von Warren G. Harding (1920), John F. Kennedy (1960) und Barack Obama (2008). Darüber hinaus wechselten drei Vizepräsidenten, die später zum Präsidenten aufrückten, direkt vom Senat in das Amt des Vizepräsidenten (John Tyler, Harry S. Truman und Lyndon B. Johnson; Richard Nixon und Joe Biden wechselten zwar ebenfalls vom Senat in das Amt des Vizepräsidenten, wurden aber erst später zum Präsidenten gewählt). Noch seltener werden Angehörige des Repräsententenhauses direkt zum Präsidenten gewählt: das gelang bisher nur James A. Garfield (1880). Gerald Ford wechselte vom Repräsentantenhaus direkt in das Amt des Vizepräsidenten, von wo er später zum Präsidenten aufrückte.\nHäufiger werden amtierende Gouverneure direkt in das Präsidentenamt gewählt – das war bei bislang sieben Präsidenten der Fall: Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), Grover Cleveland bei seiner ersten Wahl 1884 (New York), William McKinley (Ohio), Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey), Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York), Bill Clinton (Arkansas), George W. Bush (Texas). Hinzu kommen zwei Vizepräsidenten, die direkt aus dem Amt eines Gouverneurs ins Amt des Vizepräsidenten wechselten und später zum Präsidenten aufrückten: Theodore Roosevelt (New York), Calvin Coolidge (Massachusetts). Ebenfalls als Gouverneur, jedoch nicht unmittelbar vor ihrer Wahl zum Präsidenten bzw. Vizepräsidenten, amtierten Martin Van Buren (New York), John Tyler (Virginia), James K. Polk (Tennessee), Jimmy Carter (Georgia) und Ronald Reagan (Kalifornien). William Harrison war Gouverneur des Territoriums Indiana vor dessen Beitritt zu den Vereinigten Staaten als Bundesstaat.\nFünf Präsidenten wechselten aus dem Kabinett ihres jeweiligen Vorgängers auf den Stuhl des Präsidenten. Herbert Hoover war zur Zeit seiner Kandidatur Handelsminister (Secretary of Commerce) im Kabinett Coolidge, Taft war Kriegsminister (Secretary of War) im Kabinett Theodore Roosevelt. Mit Madison, Monroe und John Quincy Adams wechselten drei Präsidenten hintereinander vom Posten des Außenministers (Secretary of State) im Kabinett ihres jeweiligen Vorgängers ins Präsidentenamt.\nVier Präsidenten – John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, George H. W. Bush – waren bei ihrer Wahl zum Präsidenten Vizepräsidenten ihres Vorgängers, rückten also nicht – wie in neun weiteren Fällen erfolgt – in außerordentlicher Weise infolge des Tods oder Rücktritts ihres Vorgängers, sondern in ordentlicher Weise zum Präsidenten auf.\nZwei Präsidenten hatten bei Kandidatur ein anderes öffentliches Amt inne: Buchanan war bis kurz vor seinem Amtsantritt Botschafter in Großbritannien, William Harrison Urkundsbeamter der Geschäftsstelle (court clerk) in Hamilton County, Ohio.\nDrei Präsidenten – Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant und Dwight D. Eisenhower – wechselten vom Militär in das Amt des Präsidenten, ohne je zuvor ein (hohes) öffentliches Amt bekleidet zu haben.\nZwölf Präsidenten (George Washington, Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce, Abraham Lincoln, Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland bei seiner zweiten Wahl 1892, Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Donald Trump und Joe Biden) bekleideten zur Zeit ihrer Wahl kein öffentliches Amt (seit mindestens einem Jahr, also insbesondere nicht lediglich infolge von Freistellung als Kandidaten für die Präsidentschaftswahl). Bis auf Trump hatten sie allesamt bei früheren Gelegenheiten verschiedene öffentliche Ämter bekleidet – Trump war der erste Präsident, der zuvor nie ein politisches oder hohes militärisches Amt innehatte.\nNur wenige Präsidenten nahmen nach ihrer Amtszeit noch bedeutende öffentliche Ämter wahr:\nJohn Quincy Adams wurde Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses, eine von ihm 1833 angestrebte Wahl zum Gouverneur von Massachusetts schlug fehl,\nWilliam Howard Taft wurde nach seiner Präsidentschaft zum Obersten Richter ernannt,\nAndrew Johnson wurde nach zwei fehlgeschlagenen Kandidaturen (für den Senat 1868 und für das Repräsentantenhaus 1872) im Jahr 1874 - kurz vor seinem Tod im Jahr darauf - nochmals zum US-Senator gewählt.\nJohn Tyler nahm am Provisorischen Konföderiertenkongress als Teil der Delegation Virginias teil und wurde 1861 in das Repräsentantenhaus der Konföderierten Staaten gewählt, starb jedoch einen Monat vor der ersten Sitzung.\nGeorge H. W. Bush war seit James Buchanan der erste Präsident, der im Zuge seiner Karriere als Botschafter tätig war (unter Nixon als Ständiger Vertreter der Vereinigten Staaten bei den Vereinten Nationen und unter Ford als Botschafter in China). Er war außerdem der einzige ehemalige CIA-Vorsitzende (Director of Central Intelligence, DCI), der jemals Präsident wurde.\nVerwandtschaftliche Beziehungen\nWährend es nur wenige Präsidenten gab, die ihre Abstammung lediglich auf eine einzige Volksgruppe zurückführten (Van Buren hatte niederländische, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce und Taft englische, Kennedy irische Ahnen, Buchanans Ahnen waren Ulster-Schotten), hatten bis auf sieben alle amerikanischen Präsidenten englische Vorfahren (neben Van Buren, Buchanan und Kennedy zählen Polk, Wilson, Eisenhower und Trump zu den Ausnahmen). Unter anderem deutsche Vorfahren hatten Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson, Nixon, die beiden Bush, Obama und Trump; Hoover[22], Eisenhower und Obama hatten auch Schweizer Vorfahren. Einziger Präsident mit nichteuropäischen Vorfahren (aus der kenianischen Volksgruppe der Luo) war Barack Obama, der abgesehen von seinen deutschen und Schweizer Vorfahren außerdem über englische, französische, schottische, walisische und ulster-schottische Vorfahren verfügt.\nIn der Geschichte der USA kam es zweimal vor, dass der Sohn eines Präsidenten selbst Präsident wurde. Das ist der Fall bei John Adams, dem zweiten Präsidenten, und John Quincy Adams, dem sechsten, sowie bei George H. W. Bush, dem 41. Präsidenten, und George W. Bush, dem 43. Präsidenten. Außerdem war William Henry Harrison, der neunte US-Präsident, Großvater von Benjamin Harrison, dem 23. Präsidenten. James Madison war ein Cousin zweiten Grades von Zachary Taylor. Zwischen Andrew Johnson und Lyndon B. Johnson gibt es keine bekannte Verbindung.\nDie Präsidenten Theodore Roosevelt (26.) und Franklin D. Roosevelt (32.) waren Cousins fünften Grades, die zwei verschiedenen Zweigen der Familie angehörten - Theodore den sogenannten Oyster Bay-Roosevelts, Franklin den Hyde Park-Roosevelts (die Bezeichnungen beziehen sich auf die Wohnsitze der jeweiligen Präsidenten). Ihr gemeinsamer Ahnherr war Nicholas Roosevelt (1658–1742), Ratsherr (alderman) im seinerzeitigen Nieuw Amsterdam, dem heutigen New York City. Beide Linien trafen sich in der Nachkommenschaft Franklin D. Roosevelts wieder: seine Ehefrau Eleanor Roosevelt, eine Nichte Theodores, gehörte der Oyster Bay-Linie an, so dass Theodore außerdem Franklins Schwiegeronkel war. Franklin D. Roosevelt war darüber hinaus weitläufig mit fünf weiteren Präsidenten verwandt und mit fünf verschwägert, nämlich George Washington, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, James Madison, Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, Ulysses S. Grant, Benjamin Harrison und William Howard Taft.[23]\nBei der Präsidentschaftswahl 2016 trat Bill Clintons Ehefrau, Hillary Clinton, als Kandidatin der Demokraten an.\nPersönliches\n88 Prozent der US-Präsidenten waren überdurchschnittlich groß. Die beiden größten Amtsinhaber waren Abraham Lincoln und Lyndon B. Johnson mit einer Körpergröße von 193 cm. Der kleinste Präsident, James Madison, war nur 163 cm groß.[24][25][26] Joe Biden, der 46. Präsident, ist 182 cm groß.\nMehrere Präsidenten waren bei Amtsantritt bereits verwitwet: Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren und Chester Arthur. Die Ehefrauen John Tylers, Benjamin Harrisons und Woodrow Wilsons starben während der Präsidentschaft. James Buchanan blieb sein Lebtag unverheiratet, Grover Cleveland heiratete erst während seiner ersten Amtsperiode (seine Tochter Esther wurde als bislang einziges Präsidentenkind im Weißen Haus geboren), Wilson wiederverheiratete sich noch während seiner Präsidentschaft. Für verwitwete oder unverheiratete Präsidenten nahmen jeweils Frauen des engsten Umkreises des Präsidenten – Schwestern, Schwiegertöchter, Töchter, Nichten – die Aufgaben einer First Lady wahr. Seit der Präsidentschaft Warren C. Hardings – also seit einem vollen Jahrhundert, in dem kein einziger Präsident verwitwet oder ledig war – wurden die Aufgaben der First Lady ausnahmslos von den Ehefrauen der jeweiligen Präsidenten wahrgenommen. Von 1834 bis 1836, während der Amtszeit Andrew Jacksons, teilten sich – einmalig in der Geschichte des Weißen Hauses – zwei Frauen die Aufgaben der First Lady: Jacksons Nichte Emily Donelson sowie seine Schwiegertochter Sarah Yorke Jackson. Sarah Yorke Jackson ist auch insofern bemerkenswert, als sie das Ende ihres „Amts“ als First Lady mehr als fünfzig Jahre überlebte – darin nur knapp (um etwa zwei Monate) übertroffen von Grover Clevelands Ehefrau Frances Cleveland.\nRoosevelt-Wappen\nAus sich selbst heraus führt der Präsident kein persönliches Wappen; das Siegel des Präsidenten der Vereinten Staaten ist an das Amt gebunden. Dennoch führten manche Präsidenten ein Wappen, oft zusammen mit einem Wahlspruch. Ein Grund kann zum Beispiel die Zugehörigkeit zu einer wappenführenden Familie sein – so führten die eher weitläufig verwandten Präsidenten Theodore und Franklin D. Roosevelt dasselbe redende Wappen (der Name Roosevelt ist eine anglisierte Fassung des ursprünglichen Familiennamens \"van Rosenvelt\", auf Deutsch \"von Rosenfeld\"). Auch William und Benjamin Harrison führten dasselbe Familienwappen. John Quincy Adams führte in einem Feld seines Wappenschilds das Wappen seines Vaters John Adams. Ein weiterer möglicher Grund ist die Verleihung eines ausländischen Ordens, wie etwa im Fall Eisenhowers, dem der dänische Elefanten-Orden verliehen werden sollte, weshalb er sich, um den Anforderungen an die Verleihung dieses Ordens zu genügen, ein Wappen zulegte[27] (auch in seinem Falle ein redendes Wappen, das unter Bezugnahme auf die ursprüngliche Schreibweise seines Familiennamens – „Eisenhauer“ – einen Amboss zeigt).\nZwei Präsidenten waren römisch-katholischen Glaubens: John F. Kennedy und Joe Biden. Vier waren Unitarier (die beiden Adams, Fillmore und Taft), Andrew Johnson bezeichnete sich als Christ, ohne sich einer bestimmten Konfession zuzurechnen, Thomas Jefferson und Abraham Lincoln rechneten sich keiner bestimmten Religion zu (Jefferson galt in späteren Jahren als Deist, im Falle Lincolns ist das religiöse Bekenntnis unklar). Alle übrigen Präsidenten waren protestantischen Glaubens. Drei davon – Hayes, Trump und Obama – bezeichneten sich als Protestanten, ohne sich einer bestimmten Denomination zuzurechnen, die übrigen gehörten unterschiedlichen Denominationen an: episkopalistische Anglikaner (Washington, Madison, Monroe, William Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, Pierce, Arthur, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Ford, George H. W. Bush), Baptisten (Harding, Truman, Carter und Clinton), Methodisten (Polk, Grant, McKinley und George W. Bush), Quäker (Hoover und Nixon), Reformierte (Jackson, Van Buren, Buchanan, Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, Theodore Roosevelt, Wilson, Eisenhower und Reagan) und Restorationisten (Garfield. Lyndon B. Johnson).\n2008 kämpften mit Barack Obama und John McCain zwei Linkshänder um die Präsidentschaft. In diesem Zusammenhang richtete sich die Aufmerksamkeit der Medien häufig darauf, dass fünf der sieben Präsidenten seit 1974 (Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, George Bush sen., Bill Clinton und Barack Obama) Linkshänder waren bzw. sind, und dass seit 1977 kein Linkshänder das Präsidentenamt gegen einen Rechtshänder verloren hat.\nAmerikanische Präsidenten hielten während ihrer Amtszeit im Weißen Haus neben vielen anderen Tieren Bärenbabys (Thomas Jefferson) und Tigerbabys (Martin Van Buren), Alligatoren (John Quincy Adams, Herbert Hoover), Opossums (Benjamin Harrison), einen Dachs sowie Hyänen (Theodore Roosevelt). Keine Tiere hielten lediglich James Polk, Andrew Johnson und Donald Trump.\nMartin Van Buren war der erste und bisher einzige Präsident, dessen Muttersprache nicht Englisch war. In seinem Elternhaus wurde Niederländisch gesprochen.\nJohn Quincy Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson und Franklin D. Roosevelt sprachen fließend Deutsch.\nZwölf der ersten achtzehn Präsidenten (von George Washington bis Ulysses S. Grant) hielten Sklaven. Die Ausnahmen waren die beiden Adams, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan und Lincoln. Martin Van Buren und William Harrison hielten zur Zeit ihres Amtes keine Sklaven mehr (die Amtszeit von Andrew Johnson und Ulysses S. Grant fiel bereits in die Zeit nach Abschaffung der Sklaverei). Die Anzahl der jeweils gehaltenen Sklaven reicht von mehr als sechshundert (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson) bis hin zu einem (1) Sklaven (Martin Van Buren, Ulysses S. Grant). George Washington ließ testamentarisch seine Sklaven für den Zeitpunkt des Todes seiner Witwe Martha Washington frei, die allerdings noch vor ihrem eigenen Tod den ihr von ihrem Mann vererbten Sklaven die Freiheit gab; Polks Testament sah eine ähnliche Klausel vor, jedoch wurde noch vor dem (im Jahr 1891 erfolgten) Tod seiner Witwe Sarah Polk die Sklaverei abgeschafft.\nEhrungen\nStatue Franklin D. Roosevelts in London\nVier Präsidenten wurden mit dem Friedensnobelpreis geehrt: Theodore Roosevelt (1906 als erster Amerikaner und erster Nichteuropäer überhaupt), Woodrow Wilson (1919), Jimmy Carter (2002) und Barack Obama (2009). Roosevelt, Wilson und Obama erhielten den Preis während ihrer jeweiligen Amtszeit (Obama sogar im ersten Amtsjahr), Carter mehr als 20 Jahre danach.\nNach US-Präsidenten wurden u. a. naturwissenschaftliche Phänomene (Coolidge-Effekt), Inseln (Roosevelt-Insel) und Berge benannt (z. B. Mount Jefferson in Oregon und Mount Cleveland auf den Aleuten). Der erste Amtsträger George Washington wurde sogar zum Namenspatron der Hauptstadt und eines Bundesstaates. Weitere nach Präsidenten benannte Bundesstaaten wurden vorgeschlagen (Jefferson, Lincoln), aber nie konstituiert.\nDarüber hinaus wurden zahlreiche Counties der USA nach Präsidenten vor allem des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts benannt. Spitzenreiter mit 30 nach ihm benannten Counties sowie einem Parish in Louisiana ist George Washington, gefolgt von Thomas Jefferson mit 25 nach ihm benannten Counties (auch in seinem Fall zuzüglich eines Parish in Louisiana). Mitunter erfolgte die Benennung lediglich indirekt, wie im Falle des Jefferson County in Oregon, das nach dem Mount Jefferson benannt ist, der wiederum nach dem Präsidenten dieses Namens benannt wurde. Der bislang letzte Präsident, nach dem ein County benannt wurde, war Warren G. Harding (Harding County in New Mexico).\nAm Mount Rushmore sind die vier Präsidenten George Washington (1. US-Präsident), Thomas Jefferson (3.), Abraham Lincoln (16.) und Theodore Roosevelt (26.) abgebildet. In der „City of Presidents“ im nahe gelegenen Rapid City sind sämtliche Präsidenten von Washington bis Obama mit Statuen vertreten[28]. Neben zahlreichen weiteren Statuen innerhalb der USA wurden mehreren amerikanischen Präsidenten auch Statuen im Ausland errichtet. Die meisten Statuen gelten Franklin D. Roosevelt (London, Glasgow, Mexico City, Montevideo, Oslo und Jalta); die größte Zahl weist London auf (neben Franklin D. Roosevelt auch George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Eisenhower, Kennedy und Reagan). Im südosteuropäischen Raum sind Statuen der Präsidenten der jüngeren Zeit zahlreich vertreten: Ronald Reagan findet sich in Sofia und Budapest, George H. W. Bush ebenfalls in Budapest, Bill Clinton in Pristina und George W. Bush im albanischen Fushë-Krujë.\nSonstiges\nFür viele Präsidenten wurden vor, während oder nach ihrer Amtszeit Spitznamen geprägt, welche in der Presse und im allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch Verwendung fanden. So wurden zum Beispiel einfache Abkürzungen wie FDR für Franklin D. Roosevelt, JFK für John F. Kennedy oder LBJ für Lyndon B. Johnson herangezogen, ebenso Bezeichnungen wie Ike (Dwight D. Eisenhower), Tricky Dick(y) (Richard Nixon), Dubya (George W. Bush, nach seiner Mittelinitiale) sowie Abe oder Honest Abe für Abraham Lincoln. Auch wird heute noch die Kurzform Teddy für Theodore Roosevelt benutzt, nach dem das beliebte Stofftier, der Teddy-Bär, benannt wurde. Frühere Präsidenten trugen oft Spitznamen, die auf ihre militärischen Tugenden oder Erfolge verwiesen, etwa Old Hickory für Andrew Jackson (in Anspielung auf das harte Hickory-Holz), Old Tippecanoe für William Harrison und Old Rough and Ready (etwa: \"Altes Raubein\") für Zachary Taylor.\nSeit Franklin Roosevelt (Amtszeit: 1933–1945) unterzeichnen manche Präsidenten bedeutende Gesetze mit mehreren Füllfedern, um diese dann als Dank und Erinnerung an wesentliche Unterstützer beim Zustandekommen des Gesetzes zu übergeben. So wurde der Civil Rights Act von 1964 mit 75 Füllern unterschrieben. Andere, wie George W. Bush, unterzeichneten dagegen mit nur einem Füllhalter und übergaben ungebrauchte Füller als Andenken. Oft ist in den betreffenden Füllfedern ein Schriftzug eingraviert. Manche Füller werden von den Beschenkten für Unterschriften genutzt, die für sie bedeutend sind, oder später in Museen ausgestellt.[29]\nSeit Herbert Hoovers Präsidentschaft (1929–1933) bauen frühere Präsidenten regelmäßig eine eigene Präsidentenbibliothek auf, die vornehmlich der Bewahrung und Erforschung des Nachlasses der jeweiligen Präsidenten dient.\nDie Lebenswege späterer US-Präsidenten oder ihrer Angehörigen kreuzten sich mitunter bereits vor der Präsidentschaft in vielfacher Weise. So verteidigte im Jahr 1812 im Zuge des Britisch-Amerikanischen Kriegs der spätere Präsident Zachary Taylor unter dem Oberbefehl William Harrisons, eines anderen künftigen Präsidenten, das belagerte Fort Harrison. In ähnlicher Weise diente William McKinley im Sezessionskrieg zeitweilig unter dem Befehl von Rutherford B. Hayes. John Tylers Vater, John Tyler, Sr., war Zimmergenosse Thomas Jeffersons während seines Jurastudiums in Williamsburg.\nAkronyme und Metonyme\nFür den Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten gibt es mehrere Akronyme (Wort aus Abkürzungen oder Initialen) sowie Metonyme (sinnhafte, oft häufig gebrauchte Umschreibung anstelle der korrekten Amtsbezeichnung).\nAkronyme\nBei Proben zu Repräsentationsveranstaltungen wird für die Position des Präsidenten die Abkürzung POTUS (President of the United States) verwendet. Für die „First Lady“ kommt die Abkürzung FLOTUS (First Lady of the United States) zur Anwendung.\nMetonyme\nLeader of the free world (deutsch: „Anführer der freien Welt“), aufgrund der Macht, mit der dieses Amt ausgestattet ist\nCommander-in-Chief (deutsch: „Oberkommandierender“), da der Präsident zugleich Oberbefehlshaber der Streitkräfte ist\nChief Executive (deutsch: „[alleiniger] Inhaber der Exekutivgewalt“), aufgrund der Stellung des Amtes innerhalb des Regierungsapparats; das Kabinett hat keine Entscheidungsgewalt[30]\nEagle (deutsch: „Adler“), nach dem Wappentier\nSiehe auch\nListe der Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nListe der Attentate auf Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nPolitisches System der Vereinigten Staaten\nLiteratur\nPresidential Studies Quarterly. Wiley-Blackwell, Washington, D. C./Oxford, 1977 bis heute (vierteljährlich erscheinende Fachzeitschrift; englisch), ISSN 0360-4918.\nJolyon P. Girard (Hrsg.): Presidents and Presidencies in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara 2019, ISBN 978-1-4408-6590-9.\nLori Cox Han, Diane J Heith: Presidents and the American Presidency. 2. Auflage. Oxford University Press, New York 2017, ISBN 978-0-19-061146-0.\nDaniel E. Ponder: Presidential Leverage: Presidents, Approval, and the American State. Stanford University Press, Stanford 2017, ISBN 978-1-5036-0407-0.\nKen Gormley: The Presidents and the Constitution: A Living History. New York University Press, New York 2016, ISBN 978-1-4798-3990-2.\nMelvin I. Urofsky: The American Presidents: Critical Essays. Routledge, London 2015, ISBN 978-0-415-76378-3.\nJürgen Heideking: Einleitung: Entstehung und Geschichte der amerikanischen Präsidentschaft. In: Christof Mauch (Hrsg.): Die amerikanischen Präsidenten: 44 historische Portraits von George Washington bis Barack Obama. 6., fortgeführte und aktualisierte Auflage. Beck, München 2013, ISBN 978-3-406-58742-9, S. 13–48.\nJoseph Nye: Presidential Leadership and the Creation of the American Era. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2013, ISBN 978-0-691-15836-5.\nKurt L. Shell, Kapitel B1: Kongreß und Präsident. In: Peter Lösche (Hrsg.): Länderbericht USA. Geschichte, Politik, Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft, Kultur. 5., neubearbeitete Auflage. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Bonn 2008, ISBN 978-3-89331-851-3, S. 94–141.\nLeroy G. Dorsey (Hrsg.): The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership. Texas A&M University Press, College Station 2008, ISBN 978-1-60344-056-1.\nChristine Weiss: Der US-Präsident als Inszenierung: Ehe, Familie und Privates in der politischen Kommunikation. Nomos, 2008, ISBN 978-3-8329-3872-7.\nMarc Landy, Sidney M. Milkis: Presidential Greatness. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence 2000, ISBN 978-0-7006-1149-2.\nRobert Dallek: Hail to the Chief: The Making and Unmaking of American Presidents. Oxford University Press, New York 1999, ISBN 978-0-19-514582-3.\nLeonard W. Lewy, Louis Fischer (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of the American Presidency. 4 Bände. New York 1994 (englisch).\nWeblinks\nCommons: Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten – Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nWiktionary: US-Präsident – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen\nwww.whitehouse.gov (englisch)\nChris Melzer: Biographien aller Präsidenten der USA\nUC Santa Barbara: The American Presidency Project (englisch)\nAmerican President: A reference resource, Informationsseite des Miller Center of Public Affairs (englisch)\nEinzelnachweise\n↑ Clinton begnadigte prominente Straftäter, Der Spiegel, 20. Januar 2001, abgerufen am 3. Dezember 2020\n↑ CNN: Clinton Disappointed By Line-Item Ruling; Welcomes McDougal’s Release (engl.)\n↑ Washington Post zu McCains Status als natural born citizen, abgerufen am 2. Juli 2012 (engl.).\n↑ caselaw.lp.findlaw.com zum 14. Verfassungszusatz, abgerufen am 2. Juli 2012 (engl.).\n↑ Die Library of Congress führt eine Liste der Bibeln (engl.), auf die die verschiedenen Präsidenten ihren Eid abgelegt haben.\n↑ The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment (Memento vom 15. Januar 2013 im Internet Archive), Bruce G. Peabody & Scott E. Gant in Minnesota Law Review, Februar 1999, abgerufen am 27. Juni 2018 (engl.)\n↑ The 22nd Amendment doesn't say what you think it says, Joel A. Ready, Cornerstone Law Firm, abgerufen am 27. Juni 2018 (engl.).\n↑ Snopes: Could Barack Obama Serve as Vice President?, 9. April 2020, zuletzt gesehen am 19. April 2020.\n↑ Hillary Clinton: Bill as VP has 'crossed her mind', Tom LoBianco, CNN, 15. September 2015, abgerufen am 27. Juni 2018 (engl.).\n↑ Impeachment-Verfahren endet mit Trumps Freispruch. Zeit.de. 6. Februar 2020, abgerufen am 6. Februar 2020.\n↑ archive.org: Thomas R. Marshall, 28th Vice President (1913-1921)\n↑ Donald Trump will kein Präsidentengehalt. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. 14. November 2016.\n↑ Former Presidents Act (FPA). (PDF; 73 kB) U.S. Senate, 1958, abgerufen am 5. Januar 2007 (englisch).\n↑ Personenschutz und Pension: Das steht Trump nun zu. Abgerufen am 22. Januar 2020.\n↑ Keine Briefings mehr: Präsident Biden will Trump von CIA-Informationen abschneiden. In: DER SPIEGEL. Abgerufen am 6. Februar 2021.\n↑ Music.tv.edu (engl.).\n↑ Staatslimousine des US-Präsidenten: Cadillac Number One. Abgerufen am 15. Oktober 2014.\n↑ 2016 National Popular Vote Tracker, Cook Political Report, abgerufen am 2. Januar 2017 (engl.).\n↑ npr.org: \"A Forgotten Presidential Candidate From 1904\"\n↑ biography.com: Edith Wilson: The First Lady Who Became an Acting President — Without Being Elected\n↑ whitehouse.gov: Edith Bolling Galt Wilson\n↑ Für Herbert Hoover wird oft angegeben, dass er auch deutsche Vorfahren hätte; das dürfte darauf bezogen sein, dass Gregor Jonas Huber, Vater des 1738 nach Amerika emigrierten Andreas Huber, Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts aus der Schweiz nach Ellerstadt in der Pfalz gezogen war, wo auch Andreas (zu dessen Mutter keine Angaben gemacht werden) zur Welt gekommen sein mag, siehe Winkler, Albert, „Herbert Hoover and Belgian Relief“ (2013). Faculty Publications. 1603\n↑ nzz.ch: Fünf Familien mit mehr als einem Präsidenten\n↑ Waldo W. Braden: Abraham Lincoln. LSU Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8071-1852-4 (engl.).\n↑ Robert Dallek: Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President. Oxford University Press, S. 11.\n↑ Louis Phillips: Ask Me Anything About the Presidents., HarperCollins, 1992, ISBN 0-380-76426-1 (engl.).\n↑ „Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th president of the United States“\n↑ Seite im Webauftritt von visitrapidcity.com\n↑ Claire Suddath: Why Did Obama Use So Many Pens to Sign the Health Care Bill? Time.com, 23. März 2010 (engl.).\n↑ Vgl. Wolfgang Jäger, Christoph M. Haas, Wolfgang Welz: Regierungssystem der USA. Lehr- und Handbuch. 3. Auflage. Oldenbourg, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-486-58438-7, S. 249; Ulrike Röttger, Sarah Zielmann (Hrsg.): PR-Beratung in der Politik. Rollen und Interaktionsstrukturen aus Sicht von Beratern und Klienten. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-17723-6, S. 23.\nPräsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten\nGeorge Washington (parteilos, 1789–1797) | John Adams (F, 1797–1801) | Thomas Jefferson (D-R, 1801–1809) | James Madison (D-R, 1809–1817) | James Monroe (D-R, 1817–1825) | John Quincy Adams (D-R, 1825–1829) | Andrew Jackson (D, 1829–1837) | Martin Van Buren (D, 1837–1841) | William Henry Harrison (W, 1841) | John Tyler (W/parteilos 1841–1845) | James K. Polk (D, 1845–1849) | Zachary Taylor (W, 1849–1850) | Millard Fillmore (W, 1850–1853) | Franklin Pierce (D, 1853–1857) | James Buchanan (D, 1857–1861) | Abraham Lincoln (R, 1861–1865) | Andrew Johnson (D, 1865–1869) | Ulysses S. Grant (R, 1869–1877) | Rutherford B. Hayes (R, 1877–1881) | James A. Garfield (R, 1881) | Chester A. Arthur (R, 1881–1885) | Grover Cleveland (D, 1885–1889) | Benjamin Harrison (R, 1889–1893) | Grover Cleveland (D, 1893–1897) | William McKinley (R, 1897–1901) | Theodore Roosevelt (R, 1901–1909) | William Howard Taft (R, 1909–1913) | Woodrow Wilson (D, 1913–1921) | Warren G. Harding (R, 1921–1923) | Calvin Coolidge (R, 1923–1929) | Herbert Hoover (R, 1929–1933) | Franklin D. Roosevelt (D, 1933–1945) | Harry S. Truman (D, 1945–1953) | Dwight D. Eisenhower (R, 1953–1961) | John F. Kennedy (D, 1961–1963) | Lyndon B. Johnson (D, 1963–1969) | Richard Nixon (R, 1969–1974) | Gerald Ford (R, 1974–1977) | Jimmy Carter (D, 1977–1981) | Ronald Reagan (R, 1981–1989) | George H. W. Bush (R, 1989–1993) | Bill Clinton (D, 1993–2001) | George W. 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{"content":"Der Vertrag von Madrid war ein vom spanischen König Ferdinand VI. und dem portugiesischen König Johann V. am 13. Januar 1750 unterzeichnetes Dokument, mit dem die Grenzen zwischen den Kolonien der beiden Monarchien in Südamerika neu definiert wurden. Auf spanischer Seite war Ministerpräsident José de Carvajal y Lancaster federführend für die Inhalte verantwortlich.\nDieser Vertrag ersetzte ältere Dokumente, mit denen die Grenzen portugiesischer und spanischer Kolonialgebiete in Amerika abgegrenzt worden waren:\ndie päpstliche Bulle Inter caetera 1493\nder Vertrag von Tordesillas 1494\nder Vertrag von Saragossa 1529\nder provisorische Vertrag von Lissabon 1681 und\nder Friede von Utrecht 1715.\nIn diesen Dokumenten wurde festgelegt, dass die portugiesischen Besitzungen nicht weiter als bis zum 46. Meridian reichen sollen.\nDer Vertrag erlaubte eine große Expansion portugiesischer Territorien. Der Vertrag beruht auf dem Prinzip des römischen Rechts, dass „uti possidetis, ita possideatis“ (= demjenigen, der das Besitzrecht ausüben will, muss es auch gehören).\nAls Ergebnis des Vertrages übergab Portugal Spanien Colonia del Sacramento (Art. XIII) und erhielt im Gegenzug die südlichen Territorien an der Quelle des Río Ibicuí, die Missionen, das Grenzrecht am Rio Guaporé und überließ ihnen die westlichen Territorien des Japurá-Flusses in der Amazonas-Region und die Flussschifffahrt auf dem Río Içá (Art. XIV). Im Kriegsfall zwischen den beiden Staaten Spanien und Portugal in Europa bleiben die Kolonien in Südamerika im Frieden (Art. XXI).\nDieser Vertrag geht vom Zugang verschiedener Jesuitenreduktionen (siehe auch: Jesuitenreduktionen der Guaraní) vom Oberlauf des Río Uruguay von portugiesischer Seite aus. Da die Versklavung von Indianern in Portugal zu diesem Zeitpunkt legal war, erhoben sich die Missionen gegen den Vertrag und wehrten sich mit den Mitteln des Guerillakrieges gegen die spanischen und portugiesischen Soldaten, die die neuen Grenzen verteidigten, und die Bandeirantes, die immer wieder in die Missionen einfielen, um Indígenas zu entführen und sie als gebildete Sklaven in Brasilien zu verkaufen. Vor diesem Hintergrund spielt der Film Mission. Nach einigen Kriegsjahren stimmen die Jesuiten dem Transfer der Missionen in das portugiesische Kolonialgebiet zu.\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nText des Vertrages (spanisch)\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vertrag_von_Madrid_(1750)&oldid=204279074“\nKategorien:\nVölkerrechtlicher Vertrag\nPolitik 1750\nGeschichte (Madrid)\nSpanische Geschichte (Habsburgerzeit)\nPortugiesische Kolonialgeschichte (Amerika)\nKolonialgeschichte der Frühen Neuzeit\nPortugiesisch-spanische Beziehungen\nVertrag (18. Jahrhundert)\nPolitische Grenze\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nAzərbaycanca\nCatalà\nEnglish\nEsperanto\nEspañol\nFrançais\nGalego\nMagyar\nItaliano\nLietuvių\nNederlands\nNorsk bokmål\nPolski\nPortuguês\nРусский\nУкраїнська\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 5. Oktober 2020 um 12:21 Uhr bearbeitet.\nAbrufstatistik · Autoren\nDer Text ist unter der Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike“ verfügbar; Informationen zu den Urhebern und zum Lizenzstatus eingebundener Mediendateien (etwa Bilder oder Videos) können im Regelfall durch Anklicken dieser abgerufen werden. Möglicherweise unterliegen die Inhalte jeweils zusätzlichen Bedingungen. Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:33:20Z","warc-identified-content-language":"deu,nno","warc-block-digest":"sha1:EJ5JUHZXM7NJ2SP52H7KKEDNTUDEP6SK","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:6de7ed93-948b-40c2-ade9-61a69b7dc92a>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:e368a323-dc9b-4fa0-9e32-1bd0fc2ae0dc>","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertrag_von_Madrid_(1750)","warc-type":"conversion","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"4190"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.8700392},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.9970008},{"label":"de","prob":0.9952394},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9400222},{"label":"de","prob":0.9752829},{"label":"de","prob":0.9865394},{"label":"de","prob":0.9640507},{"label":"de","prob":0.99964535},{"label":"de","prob":0.99277633},{"label":"de","prob":0.985249},{"label":"de","prob":0.9939635},{"label":"de","prob":0.97053707},{"label":"de","prob":0.9988943},{"label":"de","prob":0.8203034},{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},{"label":"de","prob":0.95792025},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.8767167},{"label":"de","prob":0.83011246},{"label":"de","prob":0.9570873},{"label":"de","prob":0.97126174},{"label":"de","prob":0.9687655},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8391272},{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},{"label":"az","prob":0.9951163},{"label":"ca","prob":0.97929996},{"label":"en","prob":0.90974784},null,{"label":"es","prob":0.8222208},null,null,null,null,{"label":"lt","prob":1.0000594},{"label":"nl","prob":0.99833286},null,null,{"label":"pt","prob":0.9997072},null,{"label":"uk","prob":0.8764461},{"label":"de","prob":0.85126376},{"label":"de","prob":0.99994713},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"Haie (Selachii, Syn.: Selachimorpha, Selachoidei, Pleurotremata) sind Fische aus der Klasse der Knorpelfische. Es sind weltweit über 500 Arten bekannt. Das Wort Hai stammt vom niederländischen haai ab. Dieses wiederum kommt vom isländischen Wort haki, das Haken bedeutet und eine Anlehnung an die hakenförmige Schwanzflosse der Haie ist.[1] Umgangssprachlich werden die Haie oft Haifische genannt.\nDie meisten Haie fressen Fische und andere größere Meerestiere; die zwei größten Haiarten, der bis zu 14 m lange und 12 t schwere Walhai, und der Riesenhai sowie der Riesenmaulhai ernähren sich im Wesentlichen von Plankton. Obwohl jährlich nur etwa fünf Menschen infolge von Haiangriffen sterben, gelten die Tiere gemeinhin als kaltblütige Killer und Menschenfresser. Viele Haiarten sind durch übermäßige Befischung in ihrem Bestand bedroht.\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Merkmale\n1.1 Äußere Merkmale\n1.2 Schädel und Achsenskelett\n1.3 Gebiss\n1.3.1 Aufbau\n1.3.2 Zählung\n1.4 Haihaut und Beschuppung\n1.5 Sinnesorgane\n1.6 Osmoregulation\n1.7 Auftrieb\n2 Verbreitung und Lebensraum\n3 Lebensweise\n3.1 Fortpflanzung\n3.2 Sozialverhalten\n3.3 Natürliche Feinde\n4 Evolution und Systematik\n4.1 Evolution der Haie\n4.2 Systematik\n5 Beziehung zum Menschen\n5.1 Gefährdung von Menschen durch Haie\n5.2 Hai-Gefährdung durch Menschen\n5.2.1 Jagd- und Fangmethoden\n5.2.2 Der Hai als Speisefisch\n5.3 Schutzbemühungen\n6 Literatur\n7 Weblinks\n8 Einzelnachweise\nMerkmale\nÄußere Merkmale\nDer Walhai ist die größte heute lebende Fischart\nHaie stellen eine Gruppe von über 500 Arten dar, die sich in ihrer Größe und ihrem Aussehen teilweise erheblich unterscheiden. Als kleinste bekannte Arten der Haie gelten der Zwerg-Laternenhai (Etmopterus perryi) und der Zylindrische Laternenhai (E. carteri) mit nur 16 bis 20 Zentimetern Körperlänge und einem Gewicht von etwa 150 Gramm.[2][3] Als größte Arten stehen diesen der bis zu 14 Meter lange und 12 Tonnen schwere Walhai (Rhincodon typus) und der bis zu 10 Meter lange Riesenhai (Cetorhinus maximus) gegenüber, die sich beide fast ausschließlich von Plankton ernähren. Unter den fleischfressenden und jagenden Arten stellt der Weiße Hai (Carcharodon carcharias) mit einer Maximallänge von bis zu 7 Metern die größte Art dar, während der ausgestorbene Riesenhai Megalodon (Otodus megalodon) wahrscheinlich eine Gesamtlänge von 14 bis maximal 20 Meter erreichte. Etwa die Hälfte aller Haiarten erreicht eine Körperlänge von etwa einem Meter, bei 20 Prozent aller Arten liegt diese über 2 Meter.[2]\nAlle Haiarten haben einen mehr oder weniger ausgeprägt spindelförmigen Körper, der bei einigen bodenlebenden Gruppen – wie beispielsweise den Teppich- und Engelshaien oder den Sägehaiartigen – ähnlich wie bei den Rochen stark dorsoventral abgeflacht sein kann. Der Körper lässt sich in einen Kopf-, einen Rumpf- und einen Schwanzbereich unterteilen, der jeweils durch spezifische Organe und Flossen gekennzeichnet ist. Im Kopfbereich befinden sich die primären Sinnesorgane: die Augen, die Nasenlöcher, die Lorenzinischen Ampullen sowie das Maul, das zur Nahrungsaufnahme dient. Bei den meisten Haiarten ist eine Schnauzenregion ausgebildet, die mehr oder weniger spitz zuläuft. Bei einigen Arten wie den Ammen- oder den Stierkopfhaien ist sie nicht ausgebildet. Bei den Hammerhaien ist der Kopf seitwärts sehr stark verbreitert, wodurch zwischen den an den jeweiligen Kopfenden liegenden Augen und Nasenlöchern ein sehr großer Abstand entsteht.\nZwischen dem Auge und den Kiemenspalten liegt das Spritzloch, das der Aufnahme von Atemwasser dient und bei bodenlebenden Arten besonders groß ist. Die eigentlichen Kiemenspalten befinden sich am Übergang vom Kopf zum Rumpf. Die ursprünglichsten Haie, die Grauhaiartigen (Hexanchiformes), zu denen der Kragenhai (Chlamydoselachus anguineus) und die Kammzähnerhaie (Hexanchidae) gehören, sowie der Sechskiemer-Sägehai (Pliotrema warenni) haben beiderseits des Körpers jeweils sechs oder sieben offene Kiemenspalten. Bei allen anderen Arten der Haie sind nur noch fünf Kiemenspalten vorhanden.\nVerschiedene Schwanzformen bei Haien\nDer Rumpfbereich beginnt mit den paarigen Brustflossen, die in der Regel im Bereich oder hinter der letzten Kiemenspalte ansetzen. An der Bauchseite folgen diesen die ebenfalls paarigen Bauchflossen, die bei den Männchen mit den paarigen Klaspern, den Kopulationsorganen der Haie, verbunden sind. Auf der Rückenseite befinden sich in der Regel zwei hintereinanderliegende und unpaare Rückenflossen, bei denen häufig (vor allem bei den danach benannten Dornhaien) jeweils ein Rückenflossendorn ausgebildet ist. Bei den meisten Haiarten ist die erste Rückenflosse deutlich größer als die zweite, die meistens im Bereich des Schwanzstiels liegt und bei einzelnen Arten auch fehlen kann. Auf der Bauchseite des Schwanzstiels befindet sich zudem sehr häufig eine unpaare Afterflosse. Schnellschwimmende Haiarten haben zudem seitlich ausgebildete Kiele am Schwanzstiel.\nDie Schwanzflosse besteht aus einem oberen und einem unteren Flossenlappen (Lobi), wobei der untere Lobus häufig deutlich kleiner ist als der obere. Dies ist insbesondere bei bodenlebenden Arten wie den Katzenhaien, aber auch bei vielen Arten des Freiwassers, etwa Hammerhaien oder vor allem den Fuchshaien, der Fall. Letztere besitzen einen deutlich verlängerten oberen Schwanzlobus, der bei der Jagd eingesetzt wird. Bei schnellschwimmenden Arten wie den Makohaien oder dem Weißen Hai ist der Schwanz dagegen fast symmetrisch.\nSchädel und Achsenskelett\nDas gesamte Skelett der Haie besteht aus hyalinem Knorpel, der nur bei größeren und älteren Tieren in einigen Bereichen der Kiefer und der Wirbelkörper Verkalkungen (Kalzifizierungen) aufweist. Der Schädel besteht aus einem Hirnschädel (Neurocranium), der das Gehirn enthält, sowie dem Gesichtsschädel (Viscerocranium); Deckknochen sind bei rezenten Knorpelfischen nicht ausgebildet.\nDer Hirnschädel besteht aus einer einheitlichen Knorpelkapsel, die in verschiedene strukturelle Bereiche unterteilt werden kann. Der vordere Bereich wird durch das Rostrum gebildet, das die Schnauzenform des Hais bildet. Ihm schließen sich die paarigen Nasenkapseln an, die nach ventral geöffnet und dorsal über die Internasalplatte verbunden sind. Es folgen das Dach der Hirnhöhle, das zwischen der großen vorderen Fontanelle und der hinteren Fossa parietalis liegt, die Boden- oder Basalplatte der Hirnkapsel zwischen der Internasalplatte und dem Hinterhaupt, sowie die beiden Augenhöhlen (Orbitae). Nach hinten wird der Hirnschädel durch die beiden Ohrkapseln mit den Gelenkflächen für das Hyomandibulare sowie die Hinterhauptsregion (Occipitalregion) mit dem Foramen magnum und dem Übergang zur Wirbelsäule abgeschlossen. Diese Verbindung ist starr und besitzt kein bewegliches Hinterhauptsgelenk zur Vertikalbewegung des Kopfes gegenüber dem Rumpf.\nKiefer eines Tigerhais: Der Oberkiefer wird vom Palatoquadratum und der Unterkiefer vom Mandibulare gebildet.\nDem Gesichtsschädel werden die beiden Kiefer (Kieferbogen), der Hyoidbogen und die daran anschließenden Kiemenbögen zugeordnet. Außerdem gehören der Lippenknorpel, die Kiemenstrahlen und die Extrabranchialia zu diesem Kopfteil. Die beiden zahntragenden Kieferteile – dorsal das Palatoquadratum als Oberkiefer und ventral das Mandibulare als Unterkiefer – liegen unterhalb des Hirnschädels und können durch einzelne Fortsätze des Palatoquadratums im Bereich der Nase und der Augenhöhlen mit diesem verbunden sein. Die einzelnen Kieferäste sind über eine Symphyse beweglich miteinander verbunden. Eine gelenkige Verbindung der Kiefer mit dem Hirnschädel besteht bei den meisten Haien indirekt über das Hyomandibulare im Bereich der Ohrkapseln (Hyostylie), wodurch eine hohe Beweglichkeit des gesamten Kiefers erreicht wird; die einzelnen Kieferteile lassen sich unabhängig voneinander absenken und vor- und zurückschieben. Beim Kragenhai und vielen fossilen Haien liegt der Oberkiefer dagegen breit am Hirnschädel an und ist zweifach über das Palatoquadratum und das Hyomandibulare mit diesem verbunden (Amphistylie).\nDie Wirbelsäule bildet das Achsenskelett der Haie. Sie besteht aus einer wechselnden Anzahl von sanduhrförmigen Wirbelkörpern, die von 60 Einzelwirbeln beim Zwergdornhai (Squaliolus laticaudus) bis 477 bei den Fuchshaien (Alopias) reichen kann. Dabei liegt die Anzahl der Wirbel in der Rumpfwirbelsäule zwischen 44 beim Zwergdornhai bis etwa 150, die Anzahl der Schwanzwirbel kann von 12 beim Zwergdornhai bis zu mehr als 300 in der stark verlängerten Schwanzflosse der Fuchshaie reichen. Bei einzelnen Arten variiert die Anzahl auch zwischen verschiedenen Populationen, so etwa beim Dornhai (Acanthias vulgaris), dessen atlantische Population 79 bis 85 und die pazifische Population nur 68 bis 76 Rumpfwirbel besitzt. Ab etwa dem Beckengürtel kommt es bei den Haien und einzelnen Rochen zu einer Verdopplung der erkennbaren Knorpelelemente der einzelnen Wirbelkörper (Diplospondylie), durch die die Beweglichkeit des Schwanzstiels und der Schwanzflosse erhöht wird.\nGut zu sehen die zweite Zahnreihe eines weißen Hais\nGebiss\nFossiler wurzelloser Zahn eines Hais (Länge 4 cm); Bezeichnung der Zahnbestandteile\nZählung der Haizähne nach Reihen (rows) und Serien (series)\nHaie besitzen nachwachsende Zähne, hinter der ersten Zahnreihe wachsen mehrere Reihen von Zähnen nach. In einem Haileben können das bis zu 30.000 Zähne sein. Bricht in der ersten Reihe ein Zahn ab, rückt ein neuer Zahn nach, ebenso wie in einem Revolver eine neue Kugel in der Kugeltrommel nachrückt (daher auch der Name „Revolvergebiss“). Haie verlieren beim Angriff auf Robben und Fische oft zahlreiche Zähne.\nAufbau\nBei Haifischzähnen handelt es sich um modifizierte Placoidschuppen, die eine zentrale Höhlung mit der Zahnpulpa enthalten, ummantelt von Dentin und einer harten Oberfläche aus Zahnschmelz. Die Form der Zähne hängt von der Ernährungsweise der jeweiligen Art ab. Arten, deren Ernährung auf Muscheln und Krebstiere ausgerichtet ist, haben abgeflachte Zähne zum Zerkleinern, diejenigen, die sich von Fischen ernähren, haben nadelartige Zähne zum Greifen. Haie, die größere Beutetiere jagen, verfügen über dreieckige Zähne mit gezackten Rändern zum Schneiden. Die Zähne der Planktonfresser, wie dem Riesenhai, sind stark reduziert und nicht funktionsfähig.[4] Neue Zähne werden ständig in einer entsprechenden Vertiefung im Haimaul gebildet. Deren Wurzeln werden nur durch die Haut, also eher flexibel fixiert. In dieser Haut rücken die laufend neu gebildeten Zähne jeweils um eine Position vor.\nDie Wurzel des Haifischzahns besteht aus der Basallippe, einer V-förmigen Einbuchtung zwischen den Wurzellappen. Daran grenzt das Bourrelet an, ein Dentalband, das ein dreieckiges Gebiet aus sehr dünnem Schmelz zwischen Krone und Wurzel bildet. Oberhalb des Bourrelets befindet sich die Zahnkrone, die Zacken (Serrations), aufweisen kann.[5]\nZählung\nDie Zahnreihen werden entlang der Linie des Kiefers gezählt, während die Serien der Zähne von der Vorderseite des Kiefers nach innen gezählt werden. Eine einzige Zahnreihe umfasst eine oder mehrere funktionelle Zähne an der Vorderseite des Kiefers und mehrere dahinter liegende Ersatzzähne. Beispielsweise können die Kiefer eines Bullenhais 50 Zahnreihen in 7er-Serie enthalten. Die kleinen Zähne an der Symphyse, wo die beiden Hälften des Kiefers zusammentreffen, werden in der Regel getrennt von den Hauptzähnen auf beiden Seiten gezählt.[6]\nHaifischhaut mit der typischen Rillenstruktur stark vergrößert\nHaihaut und Beschuppung\nWährend die Knochenfische Elasmoid- oder Ganoidschuppen tragen, haben die Haie so genannte Plakoidschuppen, die im Revolvergebiss als Zähne beginnen und sich vom Maul über den ganzen Körper ausbreiten. Die Zähne verkleinern sich und werden als Hautzähnchen fortgesetzt, die bei den Haien im Gegensatz zu den Rochen eine fast vollständigen Körperumhüllung bilden.\nDie Haischuppen sind so ausgerichtet, dass sich die Haut glatt anfühlt, wenn man dem Hai vom Kopf zum Schwanz über den Rücken streicht. Umgekehrt fühlt sich die Haut rau an. Des Weiteren verfügen die einzelnen Schuppen über eine Rillenstruktur, die sich nahtlos über den gesamten Haikörper erstreckt. Die Rillenstruktur (s. g. Riblets) verringert den Oberflächenwiderstand. Durch die Rillen entstehen viele kleine Wasserwirbel. Diese verringern die seitlich gerichteten Kräfte der turbulenten Strömung und setzen die Reibungswirkung herab. Dieser Effekt funktioniert jedoch nur beim schnellen Schwimmen; beim langsamen Schwimmen sind glatte Oberflächen günstiger. Der Haihaut-Effekt zählt neben dem Lotus-Effekt zu den bekanntesten Erkenntnissen der Bionik. Der Effekt wird zur Verringerung des Reibungswiderstands und damit des Treibstoffverbrauchs für Schiffe, U-Boote und Flugzeuge genutzt.[7]\nSinnesorgane\nDie Augen eines Hais sind zehnmal lichtempfindlicher als die eines Menschen, und die meisten Haiarten sind wahrscheinlich farbenblind.[8] Durch die an den Kopfseiten befindlichen Augen kann er fast in alle Richtungen schauen. Bei Angriffen schützen Haie ihre Augen entweder durch eine Nickhaut, die sich wie ein Augenlid schützend vor das Auge schiebt, oder durch Verdrehen der Augen nach hinten. Die Zahl der Stäbchen (Schwarz-Weiß-Sehen) überwiegt, was die Sehfähigkeit bei schlechten Lichtverhältnissen erhöht. Eine weitere Anpassung an das Dämmerungslicht wird durch das Tapetum lucidum erreicht. Dieses besteht aus einer Schicht winziger spiegelähnlicher Kristalle. Da es hinter der Netzhaut liegt, wirft es das durch die Netzhaut gelangte Licht wieder auf die Rezeptoren zurück.\nDer Kopf der Hammerhaie ermöglicht wahrscheinlich eine bessere olfaktorische Wahrnehmung durch den vergrößerten Abstand der Nasenlöcher\nSprung eines weißen Hais aus dem Wasser bei der Attacke auf Beute nahe Gansbaai in Südafrika\nDie Geruchsorgane der Haie liegen seitlich vorne an der Schnauze. Das Riechzentrum kann bis zu zwei Drittel der Gehirnmasse ausmachen. Haie können so Blut in milliardenfacher Verdünnung wahrnehmen. Der Hai wittert seine Beute schon aus großer Entfernung (über 75 m), auch wenn kein anderer Sinnesreiz Informationen liefert. Durch ständige Kopfbewegung („Pendeln“) folgt er dieser Geruchsspur bis zum Ziel. So genannte Schneidersche Falten kanalisieren das einströmende Wasser so, dass die Nasengruben ständig von Wasser umspült werden. Eine Nasengrube ist durch eine Membran nochmals in zwei Abschnitte unterteilt, je eine für ein- und ausströmendes Wasser. Die innere Oberfläche ist gefaltet, wodurch die rezeptive Fläche vergrößert wird. Selbst ein blinder Hai findet so zielsicher sein Futter. Die Geschmacksknospen befinden sich im Gaumenbereich. Der Hai entscheidet beim Beißen, ob eine Beute genießbar ist oder wieder ausgespuckt wird. Über die gesamte Haut des Hais, bis auf die Augen und die Flossen, sind auch Geschmacksknospen verteilt; durch Anstupsen und Reiben an einer Beute kann daher ebenfalls der Geschmack wahrgenommen werden. Ein weitverbreiteter Mythos ist, dass Haie von Menschenblut angezogen werden. Tatsächlich scheinen Haie sofort zu erkennen, dass es sich bei menschlichem nicht um Beuteblut handelt. Daher zeigen sie entweder gar keine Reaktion oder schwimmen sogar vom Menschenblut weg. Dies wurde in einer Vielzahl von Versuchen nachgewiesen. Einige davon wurden auf Youtube veröffentlicht.[9]\nDas Gehör ist einfacher ausgeprägt als bei Landtieren. Die Ohren befinden sich an beiden Seiten des Gehirnschädels, von außen ist nur eine kleine Pore sichtbar. Haie reagieren im Bereich der niederfrequenten Töne, also unter etwa 600 Hz (zum Beispiel zappelnder Fisch, singende Wale, grunzende Seehunde, kämpfende Fische) und hochempfindlich auf pulsierende Schwingungen im 100-Hertz-Bereich, wie sie von kranken oder verwundeten Tieren produziert werden. Haie können tiefere Frequenzen hören als Menschen. Bereits Schallwellen ab 10 bis 800 Hz werden wahrgenommen. Das Gehör ist auch für den Gleichgewichts- und Orientierungssinn wichtig.\nLorenzinische Ampullen und Seitenlinienorgan am Kopf eines Hais\nDas Seitenlinienorgan der Haie verläuft von der Kopfregion bis zur Schwanzspitze und dient – wie bei allen Fischarten – dazu, kleinste Schwingungen und Druckunterschiede im Wasser festzustellen. Es enthält in Gallerte eingebettete Sinneszellen. Diese können Wasserbewegungen in nächster Umgebung, also Druckunterschiede (durch Beutetiere, Gegner oder Hindernisse) entlang der Körperfläche registrieren. Haie können zudem elektrische Felder wahrnehmen, die andere Lebewesen durch Herzschlag, Muskelbewegungen oder Hirnströme generieren. Die Elektrosensoren der Haie sind die Lorenzinischen Ampullen. Haie sind auch empfindlich gegenüber dem Magnetfeld der Erde, das sie zum Navigieren benutzen. So können sie nach Abwesenheit in bestimmte Regionen wieder zielgenau zurückkehren[10].\nOsmoregulation\nHaie können ihren Salzhaushalt hormonell steuern (Osmoregulation). Ihre Körperzellen enthalten wie bei den meisten Säugetieren eine geringe Konzentration an Salzen. Sie sind allerdings isoosmolar mit dem sie umgebenden Meerwasser und gehören zur Gruppe der Osmokonformer. Um das Eindringen von Salzen aus dem Meereswasser zu verhindern, lagern sie vermehrt Harnstoff, Trimethylaminoxid (TMAO) und andere Stoffe in ihren Zellen ein. Das TMAO dient dazu, die schädliche Wirkung des Harnstoffes auf die Zellen abzuschwächen. Der Harnstoff wird in den Nieren durch aktiven Transport wiedergewonnen. Um ihre niedrige Salzkonzentration aufrechtzuerhalten, geben sie Salz ins Meerwasser ab. Dafür besitzen sie Chloridzellen in den Rektaldrüsen, die nach dem gleichen Prinzip funktionieren wie in den Salzdrüsen der Meeresvögel.\nAuftrieb\nHaie sind Knorpelfische und somit relativ leichter als Knochenfische. Sie haben eine große ölhaltige Leber, die ihnen einen gewissen Auftrieb gewährt. Sie besitzen aber keine Schwimmblase, so dass Hochseehaie stets in Bewegung bleiben müssen, um nicht abzusinken.\nVerbreitung und Lebensraum\nDie verschiedenen Haiarten sind in allen Weltmeeren und allen marinen Lebensräumen anzutreffen. Sie werden oft in Küstennähe gesichtet, da dort Nahrung im Überfluss vorkommt. Sie leben aber außer in flachen Küstengewässern auch in der Hochsee sowie in der Tiefsee. Dabei sind einige Arten sehr stark auf das Leben am Meeresboden (Benthal) spezialisiert, während andere meist große Arten das Freiwasser (Pelagial) bevorzugen. Daneben gibt es Arten, wie die Flusshaie der Gattung Glyphis oder den Bullenhai, die regelmäßig oder ausschließlich im Brack- und Süßwasser von Flusssystemen oder Seen mit einer Verbindung zum Ozean vorkommen.\nLebensweise\nFortpflanzung\nHaifischeier kurz vor dem Schlüpfen\nAnders als die meisten Fischarten haben Haie ein sehr langsames Wachstum und erreichen teilweise erst mit 30 Jahren die Geschlechtsreife. Einige Arten bringen dann nur alle zwei Jahre wenige Junge zur Welt, haben somit nur eine äußerst langsame Reproduktionsrate.[11] Paarungsrituale sind Schwimmen, Beißen oder gemeinschaftliches Kreisen.\nEierlegende Haie legen ihre Eier, die zum Schutz vor Raubfischen von einer dicken Hülle umgeben sind, in Felsen oder Seetang ab. Im Inneren der Eier entwickeln sich die Embryos, die sich vom Dottersack ernähren. Die Jungen schlüpfen nach einigen Tagen oder Wochen und sind dann in der Natur auf sich allein gestellt. Die Reifung der Eier ist bei einigen Arten auch in künstlicher Umgebung realisierbar und wird in mehreren Seeaquarien auf der Welt durchgeführt.\nViele Haiarten sind lebendgebärend. Die Junghaie werden zuerst im Uterus über die Plazenta oder ein Sekret namens Uterinmilch ernährt. Bei einigen lebendgebärenden Arten wie etwa bei Weißen Haien ernähren sich die Jungen auch von anderen Embryonen (uteriner Kannibalismus). Die Haijungen sind bei der Geburt so weit entwickelt, dass sie sofort überlebensfähig sind.\nSozialverhalten\nEs ist schon lange bekannt, dass sich diverse Haiarten regelmäßig in Gruppen – sogenannten Schulen – zusammenfinden. Eine Studie an Port-Jackson-Stierkopfhaien hat gezeigt, dass sich die Tiere in diesen Schulen nicht nur gegenseitig erkennen, sondern auch gezielt die Gesellschaft bestimmter Individuen suchen. National Geographic titelte daraufhin: \"Sharks have best friends, like us.\"[12]\nNatürliche Feinde\nAußer dem Menschen, der die meisten Haie tötet, haben Haie auch andere Feinde. Insbesondere kleinere Haiarten werden regelmäßig vor allem von größeren Fischen, Rochen und größeren Haien gejagt. In Küstennähe werden kleine Haie zudem von Seevögeln oder Robben gefangen.\nGrößere Haie werden dagegen ausschließlich von Schwertwalen und von anderen Haien erbeutet.\nEvolution und Systematik\nEvolution der Haie\nZahn von Squalicorax\nBereits im Erdzeitalter des Devon vor etwa 400 bis 350 Millionen Jahren tauchten erste Haiarten auf, wie zum Beispiel der Cladoselache. Möglicherweise existierten Haie jedoch bereits seit dem Ordovizium, wie Studien von 2012 vermuten lassen.[13] Bis 1986 entdeckte man weitere Urhaie, die im folgenden Zeitalter des Karbon lebten. Viele von ihnen hatten einen oder mehrere lange Stachel auf dem Kopf (Xenacanthiformes). Die Bedeutung dieser Stacheln ist noch nicht hinlänglich geklärt; man geht davon aus, dass sie möglicherweise der Verteidigung dienten.\nDie Neoselachii erschienen im Unteren Jura. Der größte heute bekannte Hai war der Megalodon, der vor 15 bis 1 Millionen Jahren lebte. Da das Skelett von Haien zum größten Teil aus Knorpel besteht, findet man als Fossilien meist nur noch Zähne und Teile der Rückenflossen, was eine genaue Erforschung der Urhaie immens erschwert. Allerdings gibt es auch einige Funde von Urhaien, deren knorpeliges Skelett unter sehr guten Bedingungen komplett erhalten blieb.\nFossile Haizähne waren seit Jahrhunderten bekannt und als Amulett beliebt, doch erst in der frühen Neuzeit gelang es, ihre wahre Herkunft zu klären.\nSystematik\nDie Gefleckte Seeratte (Hydrolagus colliei)\n→ Hauptartikel: Systematik der Haie\nDie Knorpelfische lassen sich in zwei Hauptgruppen aufteilen, die sich in der Anzahl ihrer Arten sehr stark unterscheiden. Es handelt sich dabei um die ursprünglicheren Seekatzen (Holocephali) mit etwa 50 rezenten Arten sowie die Elasmobranchii, die die Haie und die Rochen mit über 1100 bekannten Arten beinhalten. Unter den fossilen Knorpelfischen werden zudem die Cladoselachiformes des Devon bis Karbon als Schwestergruppe aller heute existierenden Haie und Rochen angesehen, die gemeinsam mit einigen weiteren ausgestorbenen Gruppen als Neoselachii bzw. Euselachii zusammengefasst werden.[14]\nKnorpelfische\nSeekatzen (Holocephali)\nElasmobranchii\nCladoselachiformes †\nModerne Haie und Rochen (Neoselachii, Euselachii)\nBlaupunktrochen (Taeniura lymma)\nDie Neoselachii wurden traditionell nach der äußeren Erscheinung in Haie und Rochen gegliedert. 1996 wurden die Neoselachi von de Carvalho und Shirai unabhängig voneinander nach morphologischen Merkmalen in zwei monophyletische Taxa gegliedert, die Galeomorphii (Galea bei Shirai), zu denen vor allem große, das Freiwasser bewohnende Haie gehören und die Squalea, zu denen viele bodenbewohnende Haie, Tiefseehaie und die Rochen gehören. Die Haie sind damit lediglich ein paraphyletisches Formtaxon.[2][14][15]\nInzwischen gibt es allerdings mehrere molekularbiologische Untersuchungen, die eine basale Dichotomie von Haien und Rochen bestätigen. Die morphologischen Übereinstimmungen der squalomorphen Haie mit den Rochen sind danach konvergent entstanden. Da sich die Rochen, genau so wie die modernen Haie, schon seit dem frühen Jura in der fossilen Überlieferung nachweisen lassen, wird eine Abstammung der Rochen am Endpunkt einer langen Evolutionslinie der Squalea auch nicht von paläontologischen Daten gestützt.[16][17][15]\nIn den folgenden Tabellen werden je eine Version der beiden verschiedenen Konzepte der inneren Systematik der Neoselachii dargestellt.\nGoldschmid, 2004[2]\nRochen sind ein Taxon der squalomorphen Haie\nNelson, 2006[15]\nRochen und Haie stehen gleichrangig nebeneinander\nNeoselachii\nGalea\nStierkopfhaiartige (Heterodontiformes)\nAmmenhaiartige (Orectolobiformes)\nMakrelenhaiartige (Lamniformes)\nGrundhaie (Carcharhiniformes)\nSqualea\nHexanchiformes\nEchinorhiniformes\nDornhaiartige (Squaliformes)\nEngelhaie (Squatiniformes)\nSägehaiartige (Pristiophoriformes)\nRochen (Rajiformes)\nSägerochen (Pristiformes)\nGeigenrochen (Rhinobatoidei)\nRochen i.e.S (Rajoidei)\nZitterrochen (Torpedinidae)\nEchte Rochen (Rajoidea)\nStachelrochen (Myliobatoidea)\nNeoselachii\nHaie (Selachii)\nGaleomorphii\nStierkopfhaiartige (Heterodontiformes)\nAmmenhaiartige (Orectolobiformes)\nMakrelenhaiartige (Lamniformes)\nGrundhaie (Carcharhiniformes)\nSqualomorphii\nHexanchiformes\nEchinorhiniformes\nDornhaiartige (Squaliformes)\nEngelhaie (Squatiniformes)\nSägehaiartige (Pristiophoriformes)\nRochen (Batoidea)\nZitterrochenartige (Torpediniformes)\nSägerochen (Pristiformes)\nRajiformes\nMyliobatiformes\nBeziehung zum Menschen\nGefährdung von Menschen durch Haie\nJohn Singleton Copley: Watson und der Hai. Darstellung des Haiangriffs auf Brook Watson im Hafen von Havanna, 1749\nBericht über die Haiangriffe an der Küste von New Jersey (1916) im Philadelphia Inquirer\nIn der gemäßigten Klimazone wurde die Möglichkeit, dass ein Hai unprovoziert einen Menschen angreifen und töten könnte, bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts für wenig wahrscheinlich gehalten. Dass Haie gelegentlich Menschen in tropischen Gewässern töten, war bekannt. Man hielt es aber für anormale Ereignisse, die sich als Unfälle beim Fischen ereigneten. Diese Einstellung änderte sich erst mit den Haiangriffen an der Küste von New Jersey im Jahre 1916. In einem Zeitraum vom 1. Juli bis zum 16. Juli wurden fünf Menschen von Haien angegriffen. Vier der Opfer kamen dabei ums Leben. Die Ereignisse waren die Basis für den 1974 erschienenen Roman Der weiße Hai von Peter Benchley, der 1975 durch Steven Spielberg unter dem Titel Der weiße Hai verfilmt wurde. Sowohl die Ereignisse von 1916 als auch ihre literarische und filmische Verarbeitung beeinflussten die öffentliche Meinung in Bezug auf Haie stark. Angriffe von und Unfälle mit Haien auf Menschen werden heute von verschiedenen Organisationen wie z. B. dem International Shark Attack File oder dem Global Shark Attack File erfasst, rekonstruiert und analysiert. Daten von Haiunfällen sind z. B. durch das Shark Accident Victim Network im Internet verfügbar.\nAlle Haie, die dem Menschen gefährlich werden können, gehören zu der Überordnung der Echten Haie (Galeomorphii). Die Gefahr von Haiangriffen wird oft übertrieben dargestellt; so ist es 47-mal wahrscheinlicher von einem Blitz als von einem Hai getötet zu werden.[18] In einem Jahr registriert man durchschnittlich 100 Haiangriffe; ungefähr fünf bis zehn davon enden tödlich. Viele dieser Angriffe sind das Ergebnis folgender Faktoren:\nBelästigung durch den Menschen: Es gibt Fälle, in denen Personen, meistens Jugendliche, Eindruck bei ihren Altersgenossen schinden wollen, indem sie versuchen, die Flosse eines langsamen Ammenhais zu greifen. Für gewöhnlich verschwinden diese Haie, aber es gab auch Fälle, in denen sie sich umdrehten und die betroffene Person angriffen. Grundbewohnende Port-Jackson-Stierkopfhaie sind bekannt für Bissverletzungen bei auf sie tretenden Badegästen.\nVerwechslung: Der Hai hält das Angriffsobjekt für Beute, beispielsweise eine Robbe. Ein Weißer Hai (Carcharodon carcharias) kann bei einem solchen Angriff den meisten Schaden verursachen.\nNeugier: Haiangriffe auf Surfer (Wellenreiter) werden unter anderem darauf zurückgeführt, dass das Surfbrett Geräusche verursacht, die den Hai zu einem „Probebiss“ animieren. Häufig beobachten Weiße Haie Schwimmer und Taucher allerdings auch einfach nur, ohne anzugreifen, und Angriffe bestehen oft aus einem leichten Zugreifen und Festhalten im Gegensatz zu den gegen Beutetiere angewandten kräftigen Tötungsbissen. Das Verhalten gegenüber Menschen wurde deshalb auch als Untersuchung aus Neugier oder agonistisches Verhalten interpretiert.[19][20]\nObwohl viele Menschen bei den schwerwiegenderen Haiangriffen fast automatisch an einen Weißen Hai denken, so ist doch in Wirklichkeit auch der Bullenhai (Carcharhinus leucas) für viele Attacken verantwortlich. Unter anderem liegt das daran, dass diese Haie oftmals die Flüsse heraufschwimmen und dort wochenlang verweilen (Amazonas, Nicaraguasee, Sambesi).\nZusätzlich zu dem Großen Weißen Hai und dem Bullenhai haben Weißspitzen-Hochseehaie (Carcharhinus longimanus) und Tigerhaie (Galeocerdo cuvieri) Menschen nachweislich getötet. Die meisten Angriffe geschahen im Pazifik.\nWeitere zehn Arten haben den Menschen bereits gebissen, jedoch ohne tödlichen Ausgang. Zu diesen Arten zählen unter anderem der Makohai (Isurus spec.), der Seidenhai (Carcharhinus falciformis), der Zitronenhai (Negaprion brevirostris) und der Hammerhai (Carcharhinus falciformis).\nEs wird häufig behauptet, dass Haie kein Menschenfleisch mögen. Diese Behauptung rührt daher, dass Haie oftmals nur einmal zubeißen, dann aber wieder verschwinden. Dieses Verhalten kann aber auch anders erklärt werden. Wenn ein Hai einen Seelöwen oder eine Robbe angreift, stellen die Augen die verletzlichsten Körperteile eines Hais dar, die ein angegriffenes Tier noch erreichen kann. Um sich vor Verletzungen zu schützen, die von den scharfen Krallen des sich wehrenden Tiers entstehen können, verschwindet der Hai kurzzeitig. Er wartet, bis sein Opfer genügend Blut verloren hat, um es dann in dem geschwächten Zustand erneut anzugreifen. Gebissene Menschen werden oftmals gerade in dieser Wartezeit gerettet: Nach dem ersten Haiangriff holen andere Wassersportler oder Fischer den Gebissenen aus dem Wasser. Der Hai kann also nicht wieder angreifen. Selbst unter Annahme dieser Theorie geht man jedoch davon aus, dass Menschen keine bevorzugte Beute für Haie darstellen.\nEine weitere Theorie beruht darauf, dass bei diesen sogenannten Probebissen oft nur eine kleine Fleischwunde entsteht. Nach neuen Erkenntnissen der Haiforschung sind Haie intelligente Tiere mit komplexem Sozialverhalten.[21] Besonders deutlich wird dies beim Grauen Riffhai (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), dessen Warnverhalten – Schwimmen mit gesenkten Brustflossen – schon oft von Menschen nicht beachtet wurde, was Unfälle zur Folge hatte. Es wäre denkbar, dass auch andere Haie ein solches Warnverhalten zeigen und dass große Konkurrenten (Haie, Kleinwale, Menschen etc.) mit Bissen attackiert werden, um sie zu vertreiben. Dies würde die Tatsache erklären, dass einige Haiangriffe oft nur kleine Fleischwunden zur Folge haben.\nDie seit 1992 vermehrt auftretenden Haiangriffe vor Recife haben gezeigt, dass anthropogene Umweltveränderung das Jagdverhalten von Haien verändern können.\nFür das Jahr 2020 meldet das Internationale Archiv für Hai-Attacken des Florida Museums für Naturgeschichte 104 nachweisliche Angriffe von Haien auf Menschen, wovon 13 Angriffe für die Opfer tödlich endeten.\n2012 wurde der prominente Bodyboard-Surfer aus Südafrika, David Lilienfeld, durch einen Hai-Angriff getötet. Sein Fall erregte weltweit Aufsehen und zeigt die Gefährdung von Surfern durch Haie.\n2015 wurde ein Surfwettbewerb wegen eines Haiangriffs abgesagt. Mick Fanning hatte sich gegen den heranschwimmenden Hai gewehrt und blieb unverletzt.[22]\nHai-Gefährdung durch Menschen\nJährlich werden nach Angaben der FAO etwa 700.000 bis 800.000 t Knorpelfische gefangen, davon ein großer Teil als Beifang der großindustriellen Fangflotten. Diese Menge entspricht 70 bis 100 Mio. Einzeltieren, etwa 60 % davon sind Haie und 40 % Rochen.[23] Nach Compagno et al. 2005 sind diese Zahlen allerdings deutlich zu niedrig eingestuft, da eine Vielzahl von Staaten zu niedrige Fangzahlen angibt, er geht mindestens von der doppelten Menge aus.[23]\nDie wirtschaftliche Nutzung des Haies hat letztendlich dazu geführt, dass über 70 Arten bereits vom Aussterben bedroht sind. Die meisten dieser Arten werden bereits als nicht mehr überlebensfähig bezeichnet. Im Mittelmeer sind mehr als die Hälfte der Haiarten vom Aussterben bedroht.[24]\nIn einer Studie an Puffotter-Katzenhaien konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass sich die zunehmende Versauerung der Meere negativ auf die Schuppenstrukturen der Haie auswirken könnte.[25][26]\nJagd- und Fangmethoden\nAuch der Zitronenhai wird wegen seiner Flossen gejagt\nDie Jagd auf Haie war und ist nach wie vor ein beliebter Sport. Begehrt sind das präparierte Haigebiss oder der ganze Kopf als Trophäe. Haie werden meistens wegen ihrer Flossen gejagt, die zur Herstellung der chinesischen Haifischflossensuppe verwendet werden; hierbei hat sich mit dem Shark-Finning (auch Hai-Finning) eine besonders grausame Art der Jagd entwickelt: Dem Hai werden bei lebendigem Leib die Flossen abgetrennt und das Tier wird anschließend ins Meer zurückbefördert, wo es zugrunde geht. Viele Tiere verenden an der Langleine, bevor sie ihre Geschlechtsreife erreichen.[11] Haifischknorpel wird als Nahrungsergänzungsmittel bei chronischen Gelenkerkrankungen eingesetzt.\nHaie werden außerdem von Schleppnetzen als Beifang erfasst und getötet. Besonders gefährdet sind Haiarten wie der Weiße Hai, der Tigerhai und der Hammerhai.\nDer Hai als Speisefisch\nChinesische Haifischflossensuppe\nDas Fleisch des Hais findet oft Verwendung in verschiedenen Küchen der Welt. In Asien wird beispielsweise gerne die Haifischflosse verarbeitet: Zu Haifischflossensuppe oder in China auch als Ganzes. Aber auch in anderen Ländern gilt der Hai als Nahrungsmittel: Die Inuit in Grönland trocknen das Fleisch des Grönlandhais oder fermentieren es zur regionalen Delikatesse „tipnuk“. Das isländische Gericht Hákarl besteht ebenfalls aus fermentiertem Grönlandhai.\nDa der Hai an der Spitze der Nahrungskette steht, sammelt sich im Haifleisch Methylquecksilber (MeHg) an. Daher reicht schon der Verzehr relativ geringer Mengen von Haifleisch zur Überschreitung unbedenklicher Mengen an MeHg, so dass man leicht auf toxische Expositionsmengen kommt.[27]\nSpezielle und hinsichtlich der Küche wertvolle Haie werden unter anderen Namen verkauft. Die Industrie vermarktet den Fisch vorsichtig, dennoch wird er oftmals unbewusst konsumiert. Die untenstehende Tabelle zeigt einige Beispiele dieser Namensgebung.\nHandelsname\nDefinition\nGreyfish Grauhai\nRocksalmon Katzenhai aus Irland\nSaumonette Katzenhai aus Frankreich\nSeeaal Dornhai in Gelee\nSchillerlocke geräucherter Dornhai\nSchutzbemühungen\nEine Reihe von Organisationen hat es sich zur Aufgabe gemacht, Haie zu schützen. Die Initiative #stopfinningEU hat eine Europäische Bürgerinitiative ins Leben gerufen, mit der sie erreichen will dass die Fins Naturally Attached Verordnung auf den Export, Import und Transit von Haien und Rochen ausgeweitet wird. Diese Verordnung schreibt vor dass der ganze Hai angelandet werden muss – also ein Abtrennen der Flossen und anschließendes ins Wasser werfen des Körpers auf See verboten ist.[28]\nDer Meeresschutzorganisation Sea Shepherd gelang es wiederholt, in Zusammenarbeit mit lokalen Behörden, illegale Schiffe, welche Jagd auf Haie machten festzusetzen. Über die Inhaber dieser Schiffe wurden teils Strafen in Millionenhöhe verhängt. Darüber hinaus wurde das Leben von über einer Million Haien gerettet, da die festgesetzten Schiffe nicht fischen konnten, während sie im Hafen lagen.[29][30][31] Weiters wirbt Sea Shepherd für den Schutz von Haien. Dies geschieht durch kostenlose Vorträge in Schulen[32], das Bewerben diverser Petitionen zum Schutz von Haien[33][34], Werbekampagnen[35][36][37] und durch ihre Merchandiseprodukte[38].\nDas Sharkproject finanziert Forschungsarbeit,[39] sensibilisiert die Öffentlichkeit,[40] führt Projekte in Schulen durch[41] und gibt Bücher heraus, die sich mit Haien beschäftigen.[42]\nWeitere Organisationen die sich um den Schutz von Haien bemühen sind die Deutsche Stiftung Meeresschutz,[43] Shark Savers Germany[44], Stop Finning Germany e.V.[45], Blue Shark Conservation[46], All For Blue[47], die Shark Allies[48], Shark Guardian[49] die Shark Citizens[50] und Sharks Educational.[51]\nLiteratur\nJürg M. Brunnschweiler: Was Haie sind. Aspekte der Knorpelfischbiologie. Cuvillier, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-86537-662-6.\nLeonard Compagno, Marc Dando, Sarah Fowler: Sharks of the World, Princeton Field Guides, Princeton University Press, Princeton und Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0.\nRalf Michael Hennemann: Haie & Rochen Weltweit, Jahr Verlag, IKAN-Unterwasserarchiv Frankfurt, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-86132-584-5.\nAlessandro de Maddalena, Frank Reckel: Haie im Mittelmeer, In: Biologie in unserer Zeit, 33(4), 2003, ISSN 0045-205X. S. 257–263.\nAngelo Mojetta: Haie – Biografie eines Räubers, Jahr Verlag, Hamburg 1997, ISBN 3-86132-224-2.\nJoseph S. Nelson: Fishes of the world, Fourth Edition, Wiley & Sons, Hoboken 2006, ISBN 978-0-471-25031-9.\nErich Ritter, Gerhard Wegner: Haiunfälle: Hintergründe verstehen – Gefahren erkennen, Kosmos-Verlag, 2005, ISBN 978-3-440-09807-3.\nWeblinks\nCommons: Haie – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nWiktionary: Hai – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen\nWebsite der Haischutzorganisation Shark Project\nWebsite der Deutschen Elasmobranchier Gesellschaft\nhai.ch: Datenbank zu 250 Haiarten\nshark-references.com: Umfangreiche Literaturdatenbank wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten über rezente/fossile Haie/Rochen mit zahlreichen Downloadlinks\nEinzelnachweise\n↑ Kluge. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 24. Aufl. bearbeitet von Elmar Seebold. Berlin / New York 2002, S. 384.\n↑ a b c d Alfred Goldschmid: Chondrichthyes, in: W. Westheide und R. Rieger: Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 2. Wirbel- oder Schädeltiere. Spektrum, München 2004; S. 199. ISBN 3-8274-0307-3\n↑ Leonard Compagno, Marc Dando, Sarah Fowler: Sharks of the World. Princeton Field Guides, Princeton University Press, Princeton und Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0. Seite 103.\n↑ Gilbertson, Lance (1999): Zoology Laboratory Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 0-07-237716-X\n↑ Haizahn, Zahnkunde\n↑ P. C. Heemstra, E. Heemstra: Coastal fishes of Southern Africa. (2004) NISC/SAIAB. ISBN 1-920033-01-7. S. 47\n↑ Bharat Bhushan: Biomimetics inspired surfaces for drag reduction and oleophobicity/philicity, Open Access Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology, 2011, 2, S. 66–84; doi:10.3762/bjnano.2.9\n↑ Nathan Scott Hart, Susan Michelle Theiss, Blake Kristin Harahush, Shaun Patrick Collin: Microspectrophotometric evidence for cone monochromacy in sharks. Naturwissenschaften, 2011; doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0758-8\n↑ FOCUS Online: Haie mögen kein Menschenblut . In: FOCUS Online . (focus.de [abgerufen am 17. Oktober 2018]).\n↑ Juerg M. Brunnschweiler: Was Haie sind . 1. Auflage. Cuvillier Verlag, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-86537-662-6.\n↑ a b Haifisch in Not – Artenschützer beraten über Fangbeschränkungen, Umwelt und Verbraucher, DRadio am 29. Januar 2010\n↑ Sharks Have Best friends, Like Us . (com.au [abgerufen am 16. Oktober 2018]).\n↑ Philip Motta, Maria Laura Habegger, Amy Lang, Robert Hueter, Jessica Davis: Scale morphology and flexibility in the shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus and the blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus . In: Journal of Morphology . Band 273, Nr. 10, 2012, ISSN 1097-4687, S. 1096–1110, doi:10.1002/jmor.20047 (wiley.com [abgerufen am 24. Februar 2021]).\n↑ a b What is a shark? In: Leonard Compagno, Marc Dando, Sarah Fowler: Sharks of the World. Princeton Field Guides, Princeton University Press, Princeton und Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0. Seite 15–16.\n↑ a b c Joseph S. Nelson: Fishes of the World, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, ISBN 0-471-25031-7\n↑ C. J. Winchell, A. P. Martin, J. Mallatt: Phylogeny of elasmobranchs based on LSU and SSU ribosomal RNA genes, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 31, Issue 1, April 2004, Pages 214–224, doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.010.\n↑ C. J. Underwood: Diversification of the Neoselachii (Chondrichthyes) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous, Paleobiology, 32 (2) (2006). pp. 215–235. PDF\n↑ Risk of Death . In: Florida Museum . 24. Januar 2018 (ufl.edu [abgerufen am 14. Oktober 2018]).\n↑ L. J. V. Compagno: Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2. Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1, Vol. 2. FAO Rom 2001; ISBN 92-5-104543-7, S. 98–107 (Volltext, Artportrait@1@2Vorlage:Toter Link/ftp.fao.org (Seite nicht mehr abrufbar, Suche in Webarchiven) Info: Der Link wurde automatisch als defekt markiert. Bitte prüfe den Link gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis. )\n↑ E. Ritter, M. Levine: Use of forensic analysis to better understand shark attack behaviour . In: The Journal of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology . Band 22, Nr. 2, 2004, S. 40–46 (englisch).\n↑ M. Bres: The behaviour of sharks. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 3 (2), 1993; S. 133–159, doi:10.1007/BF00045229.\n↑ „Kokosnüsse sind gefährlicher als Haie“ „Ich zerbreche mir darüber nicht den Kopf. Jeder kennt die Grundregel: ruhig bleiben, nicht rumzappeln, kein Wasser aufwühlen. Falls das Tier angreift: auf die Nase boxen oder in die Augen stechen. Aber solche Vorfälle sind die absolute Seltenheit.“, Süddeutsche Zeitung vom 23. Juli 2015, abgerufen am 7. Oktober 2015\n↑ a b Leonard Compagno, Marc Dando, Sarah Fowler: Sharks of the World. Princeton Field Guides, Princeton University Press, Princeton und Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0. Seite 45.\n↑ 41 Haiarten im Mittelmeer vom Aussterben bedroht. In: derbund.ch. 12. September 2019, abgerufen am 12. September 2019.\n↑ Jacqueline Dziergwa, Sarika Singh u. a.: Acid-base adjustments and first evidence of denticle corrosion caused by ocean acidification conditions in a demersal shark species. In: Scientific Reports. 9, 2019, doi:10.1038/s41598-019-54795-7.\n↑ Martin Vieweg: Ozeanversauerung nagt an Hai-Schuppen. In: wissenschaft.de (natur.de). 23. Dezember 2019, abgerufen am 28. Dezember 2019.\n↑ Studie zur Exposition mit Methylquecksilber durch Fischverzehr, BfR, Februar 2008, abgerufen am 20. Januar 2013 (PDF; 461 kB)\n↑ cstaacks: Forderung. In: STOP FINNING. Abgerufen am 27. Juli 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ John Vidal: Off Tanzania, in one of the world’s richest seas, why is the catch getting smaller? In: The Guardian . 15. September 2018, ISSN 0261-3077 (theguardian.com [abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020]).\n↑ Fleet Targeting Sharks in Timor Leste Released Without Charge. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (englisch).\n↑ Vision Team: Blacklisted shark fishing vessel arrested in Liberia. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020.\n↑ Schulbesuche. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ Hilf mit die Haie vor La Réunion zu retten und unterschreibe die Petition! Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ cstaacks: Europäische Bürgerinitiative: „Stop Finning – Stop the Trade“. Abgerufen am 17. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ Sea Shepherd: Ocean's wings, 3 (With images) | Sea shepherd, Ocean, Ocean conservation. Abgerufen am 17. Juni 2020.\n↑ Fred & Farid: Fred & Farid - Sea Shepherd - Shark | AdForum Talent: The creative industry network. Abgerufen am 17. Juni 2020 (englisch).\n↑ Sea Shepherd Print Advert By Heads: Shark | Ads of the World™. Abgerufen am 17. Juni 2020 (englisch).\n↑ T-Shirts. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (englisch).\n↑ White Shark Nursery. Abgerufen am 18. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ Azoren Kampagne. Abgerufen am 18. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ SHARKPROJECT Schulprogramm. Abgerufen am 18. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ Bücher. Abgerufen am 18. Juni 2020.\n↑ FÜR DIE MEERE • Deutsche Stiftung Meeresschutz. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ Shark Savers. In: WildAid. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Stop Finning Deutschland e.V. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (deutsch).\n↑ BlueShark - BlueShark: Shark Conservation & Photography. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020.\n↑ Non Profit Organization Shark Awareness & Underwater CleanUps. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Taking Action To Save Sharks | Shark Allies. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (amerikanisches Englisch).\n↑ Shark Guardian. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (englisch).\n↑ Home - Shark Citizen - Association de conservation des requins. Abgerufen am 19. Juni 2020 (fr-FR).\n↑ Sharks Educational ~ Workshops. Abgerufen am 19. 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{"content":"Bernhard Niehues (* 14. April 1868 in Münster; † 29. Dezember 1950 in Nordhorn) war ein deutscher Unternehmer sowie Gründer und langjähriger Inhaber des Textilunternehmens Niehues & Dütting.\nLeben[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nJohann Bernard Theodor Niehues wurde am 14. April 1868 in Münster als Sohn des Historikers Bernhard Niehues und dessen Ehefrau Maria geb. Crone geboren. Er war römisch-katholischer Konfession und heiratete am 25. September 1900 in Feldhausen Maria geb. Küster (1879–1962), die eine Tochter des Holzgroßhändlers Anton Küster war. Aus der Ehe gingen fünf Kinder hervor:\nMaria (Mia) Niehues (1901–1989), verheiratet mit Generalkonsul und I.G.-Farben-Manager Wilhelm Rudolf Mann, danach mit Hans Bronner (München)\nLouise (Lulu) Niehues (1903–1981), verheiratet mit Hermann Paas.\nHedwig (Heti) Niehues (1907–1986), verheiratet mit Hans Denk (Berlin).\nBernhard Niehues (1909–1984), verheiratet mit Sonja Esser (Düsseldorf).\nErika Niehues (1911–1990), verheiratet mit Heinrich Greven (Köln).\nNiehues machte eine kaufmännische Lehre, war danach bei der Weberei Kock in Steinfurt-Borghorst tätig und im Anschluss daran Volontär bei der Textilfirma Ludwig Povel & Co. in Nordhorn. Nach einem längeren Aufenthalt in England gründete er 1897 zusammen mit dem Textilkaufmann Friedrich Dütting (1859–1925) aus Osnabrück die Textilfirma Niehues & Dütting (N&D). Nach dem Tod von Dütting war Niehues Alleininhaber der Firma. 1928 erfolgte der Bau des fünfstöckigen Spinnerei-Hochbaus mit drei Ecktürmen in Nordhorn (NINO-Hochbau) des Stuttgarter Industriearchitekten Philipp Jakob Manz. Am 29. Dezember 1950 starb Bernhard Niehues im Alter von 82 Jahren in Nordhorn. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt hatte das Unternehmen 5000 Beschäftigte. Nach seinem Tod wurde das Unternehmen 1959 in NINO GmbH & Co. umbenannt. Bernhard Niehues wurde auf dem katholischen Nordfriedhof in Nordhorn am Deegfelder Weg bestattet.\nDie Bernhard-Niehues-Straße in Nordhorn wurde nach ihm benannt.\nBernhard Niehues wurde am 31. August 1950 zum Ehrenbürger der Stadt Nordhorn ernannt. Am 1. Oktober 2020 wurde ihm seine Ehrenbürgerwürde wegen seiner persönlichen, politischen oder wirtschaftlichen Verstrickungen mit dem NS-Regime symbolisch postum aberkannt.\nQuellen[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nBernhard Niehues, in: Biographisches Handbuch zur Geschichte der Region Osnabrück, 1990, S. 214–215.\nGerhard Plasger: Bernhard Niehues, in: Studiengesellschaft für Emsländische Regionalgeschichte (Hrsg.),Emsländische Geschichte, Band 6, 1997, S. 266–273.\nThomas Großbölting und Fabian Köster: Nordhorner Ehrenbürger in der Diskussion – Die Stadt Nordhorn und die Verleihung von Ehrenbürgerwürden 1929 bis heute. 2019.\nGrafschafter Nachrichten vom 2. Oktober 2020: Rat erkennt drei Nordhornern Ehrenbürgerwürde symbolisch ab\nNormdaten (Person): GND: 1035101734 (OGND, AKS) | VIAF: 303762091 | Wikipedia-Personensuche\nPersonendaten\nNAME Niehues, Bernhard\nALTERNATIVNAMEN Niehues, Bernard\nKURZBESCHREIBUNG Unternehmer\nGEBURTSDATUM 14. April 1868\nGEBURTSORT Münster\nSTERBEDATUM 29. Dezember 1950\nSTERBEORT Nordhorn\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernhard_Niehues_(Unternehmer)&oldid=209963824“\nKategorien:\nDeutscher\nGeboren 1868\nGestorben 1950\nMann\nUnternehmer (Niedersachsen)\nTextilunternehmer (19. Jahrhundert)\nTextilunternehmer (20. Jahrhundert)\nPerson (Nordhorn)\nEhrenbürger im Landkreis Grafschaft Bentheim\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Sprachen\nLinks hinzufügen\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 19. 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Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"warc-block-digest":"sha1:7WCIUSUAETKBVHVZLJWZCAGWBPCGACA4","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Niehues_%28Unternehmer%29","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:420232b2-4ed4-43af-b5a7-34afde4532ec>","warc-type":"conversion","content-type":"text/plain","content-length":"4701","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:14:48Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:6b8b090e-17b6-470e-aa5f-70ee0de54661>","warc-identified-content-language":"deu"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.85612565},"annotation":["short_sentences","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.9896505},{"label":"de","prob":0.96269655},{"label":"de","prob":0.9875634},{"label":"de","prob":0.937524},{"label":"de","prob":0.85906106},{"label":"de","prob":0.8332157},{"label":"de","prob":0.86739385},{"label":"de","prob":0.8919357},{"label":"de","prob":0.9899484},{"label":"de","prob":0.9996844},{"label":"de","prob":0.9978523},{"label":"de","prob":0.9582198},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.97478896},{"label":"de","prob":0.9948061},{"label":"de","prob":0.98614126},null,null,null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9974809},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99052817},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.910413},{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},{"label":"de","prob":0.9011347},{"label":"nl","prob":0.89712024},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99313474},{"label":"de","prob":0.97199976},{"label":"de","prob":0.97498316},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98842895},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},{"label":"de","prob":0.95438933},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000255},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"Das Obere Schloss ist das Wahrzeichen der thüringischen Stadt Greiz. Es ist ein architektonisch wertvolles und markantes Kulturdenkmal.\nDie ersten urkundlichen Erwähnungen einer dort von den Vögten von Weida und Plauen errichteten Greizer Burganlage fallen bereits in die Jahre 1209 und 1225. Auch wenn sich im Laufe der Zeit die Funktion der Anlage hin zur Repräsentation gewandelt hat, zeigen sich auch heute noch an einigen Stellen Reste der alten Burgbefestigung.\nInhaltsverzeichnis\n1 Geographische Lage\n2 Erscheinungsbild und Aufbau\n3 Geschichte\n4 Weblinks\n5 Siehe auch\n6 Literatur\nGeographische Lage[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nDas obere Schloss wurde auf einem 50 Meter hohen länglichen Bergkegel aus Tonschieferfels im Tal der Weißen Elster errichtet. Der Schlossberg wurde im Süden und Westen durch diesen Fluss geformt und war ursprünglich mit dem Ost- und Nordhang des Elstertals verbunden, auf dem heute der Ortsteil Irchwitz liegt. Die Gräßlitz formte den Berg von Osten und Norden, wo sie in die Weiße Elster mündete. Der Schlossberg als einzeln stehende Erhebung entstand beim Durchbruch der Gräßlitz durch den südlich gelegenen Prallhang.\nDie Greizer Altstadt schließt sich südöstlich direkt an den Schlossberg an. Nach Süden hin liegen Geschäfts- und Wohnhäuser, die teilweise in den Fels gebaut wurden, sowie weiterhin die Weiße Elster und auf der gegenüberliegenden Flussseite die Neustadt. Im Westen und Nordwesten des Schlosses schließt sich der Greizer Park an.\nIn der Kategorie der Höhenburgen kann das Obere Schloss als Gipfelburg angesehen werden, da es zu allen Seiten durch steile Hänge vom Tal abgegrenzt ist.\nErscheinungsbild und Aufbau[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nVon Süden her erscheint das Schloss als ein einfaches hohes Haus. Die Renaissancegiebel des Ostflügels stellen dagegen den schlossartigen Charakter der Anlage dar, während sie von Norden und Westen her bis heute wie eine mittelalterliche Burg wirkt.\nDie hauptsächlich zusammenhängenden Gebäude des umfangreichen Komplexes erstrecken sich in Form einer Ellipse von NNW nach SSO. Dabei umschließen sie den oberen Schlosshof sowie die Spitze des Bergkegels, auf welchem der Bergfried steht, komplett. Der Zugang zu dieser Felsenspitze erfolgt über ein Treppenhaus in einem Querflügel, welcher auch den oberen Schlosshof in nördliche Richtung abschließt.\nNördlich des oberen Schlosshofs bestehen zwischen Felsen und Außengebäuden auf beiden Seiten gepflasterte Wege. Diese führen durch einen Zwinger zum unteren Schlosshof. Dieser ist von mehreren nicht zusammenhängenden Gebäuden begrenzt – dem Torhaus, dem heutigen Stadtarchiv und noch heute als solche genutzten Wohngebäuden. Von hier aus führen Wege auf allen Seiten des Berges in die Stadt und zum Greizer Park.\nVon einem südlichen Ausgang führte über eine Brücke ein Verbindungsweg zu einem Turmgebäude, das sich an der südlichsten Spitze des Berges befand. Nach diesem Bauwerk wird der dortige Garten heute als Untere Schanze bezeichnet.\nGeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nSeit dem beginnenden 13. Jahrhundert war die Burg Residenz der Vögte von Weida und Plauen und später der reußischen Herren. Unter den beiden Söhnen von Heinrich III. Reuß, dem Älteren, Herrn von Plauen und Greiz (1350–1368), entstanden infolge einer Erbteilung getrennte Hofhaltungen im Vorderen und Hinteren Schloss. 1564 führte eine erneute Erbteilung zur Entstehung der Herrschaften Ober-Greiz und Unter-Greiz (letztere mit Residenz im Unteren Schloss). Graf Heinrich XI. Reuss zu Obergreiz erbte 1768 auch Unter-Greiz und wurde 1778 in den Reichsfürstenstand erhoben, als Fürst Reuß älterer Linie.\nNach einem Blitzschlag am 3. Juni 1540 brannte die Burg fast vollständig nieder und wurde anschließend schrittweise wieder neu errichtet. Von ca. 1620 bis 1625 erhielt der Bergfried auf dem isolierten Felskegel seine jetzige Gestalt. Die Umgestaltung der Burg zur gräflichen Residenz erfolgte von 1697 bis 1714. Dabei wurde u. a. der größte Teil der Wehranlage beseitigt. Durch zahlreiche Neu- und Anbauten im spätbarocken Stil entstand in den Jahren 1733 bis 1753 der untere Schlosshof in seiner heutigen Gestalt. In einer Stadtansicht von 1714 ist erstmals der Zufahrtsweg von der Stadt aus zu sehen. Dieser Weg entstand in der Zeit von 1705 bis 1737 in seiner heutigen Form. Der ältere Haupteingang zur Burg befand sich am heutigen Stelzentor. Die Auffahrt zur Burg war ursprünglich nur von der Parkgasse aus möglich.\nDie Anordnung des Oberen und Unteren Schlosses in Greiz\nNach dem Umzug der reußischen Fürsten 1809 in das nach dem Stadtbrand von 1802 wiederaufgebaute Untere Schloss Greiz wurde das Obere Schloss Sitz der Regierungsbehörden des Fürstentums Reuß ältere Linie. Dieses Fürstentum war übrigens die flächenmäßig kleinste Monarchie des 1871 gegründeten Deutschen Kaiserreiches. Im Zuge der Novemberrevolution 1918 dankten Fürst und Landesregierung ab, und das Obere Schloss wurde per Auseinandersetzungsvertrag in den Besitz des Volksstaates Reuß überführt. Schon im 19. Jahrhundert beherbergte das Obere Schloss viele Wohnungen. Bereits im Jahre 1884 erhielten die Einwohner den Status einer eigenen Schlossgemeinde mit eigenem Bürgermeister und Selbstverwaltung. Erst 1919 wurde diese Schlossgemeinde wieder in die Stadt Greiz eingegliedert. Noch heute dient ein Teil der Gebäude zu Wohnzwecken. Das Obere Schloss gehört der Stadt Greiz und wird in deren Auftrag seit 1991 saniert und restauriert.\nWeblinks[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nCommons: Oberes Schloss – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien\nHomepage der Stadt Greiz\nSiehe auch[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nSommerpalais in Greiz\nLiteratur[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]\nLutz Scherf: Das Obere Schloss in Greiz und seine hochmittelalterlichen Backsteinbauten. In: Archäologische Begleitung der Sanierung Oberes Schloss in Kooperation mit der Kaiserpfalz Cheb. Greiz 2007, S. 34–51.\nLutz Scherf: Das Obere Schloss in Greiz und seine hochmittelalterlichen Backsteinbauten. In: Jahrbuch des Museums Reichenfels-Hohenleuben 52, 2007, S. 5–27.\nSibylle Putzke, Thüringisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie (Hrsg.): Das Obere Schloss in Greiz : ein romanischer Backsteinbau in Ostthüringen und sein historisches Umfeld. Reinhold, Altenburg 2008. ISBN 978-3-937940-51-9\nDiethard Fricke: Das Vogtland um Greiz. TITV e.V., Regionalmanagement der Region Greiz, Greiz 2013\nNoch unsaniertes Gebäude auf dem Schloss\nSaniertes Torhaus\nSchanzengarten\nDas Obere Schloss oberhalb von der weißen Elster und dem Elstersteig\nNormdaten (Geografikum): GND: 4803528-2 (OGND, AKS)\n50.65768333333312.19685Koordinaten: 50° 39′ 27,7″ N, 12° 11′ 48,7″ O\nAbgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oberes_Schloss_(Greiz)&oldid=208735913“\nKategorien:\nRenaissancebauwerk in Thüringen\nSchloss im Landkreis Greiz\nBauwerk in Greiz\nKulturdenkmal in Greiz\nNavigationsmenü\nMeine Werkzeuge\nNicht angemeldet\nDiskussionsseite\nBeiträge\nBenutzerkonto erstellen\nAnmelden\nNamensräume\nArtikel\nDiskussion\nVarianten\nAnsichten\nLesen\nBearbeiten\nQuelltext bearbeiten\nVersionsgeschichte\nWeitere\nSuche\nNavigation\nHauptseite\nThemenportale\nZufälliger Artikel\nMitmachen\nArtikel verbessern\nNeuen Artikel anlegen\nAutorenportal\nHilfe\nLetzte Änderungen\nKontakt\nSpenden\nWerkzeuge\nLinks auf diese Seite\nÄnderungen an verlinkten Seiten\nSpezialseiten\nPermanenter Link\nSeiten­informationen\nArtikel zitieren\nWikidata-Datenobjekt\nDrucken/­exportieren\nBuch erstellen\nAls PDF herunterladen\nDruckversion\nIn anderen Projekten\nCommons\nIn anderen Sprachen\nEsperanto\nLinks bearbeiten\nDiese Seite wurde zuletzt am 12. Februar 2021 um 20:52 Uhr bearbeitet.\nAbrufstatistik · Autoren\nDer Text ist unter der Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike“ verfügbar; Informationen zu den Urhebern und zum Lizenzstatus eingebundener Mediendateien (etwa Bilder oder Videos) können im Regelfall durch Anklicken dieser abgerufen werden. Möglicherweise unterliegen die Inhalte jeweils zusätzlichen Bedingungen. Durch die Nutzung dieser Website erklären Sie sich mit den Nutzungsbedingungen und der Datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden.","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:105157f7-1ee7-4c5a-9233-8f4b1e3cf798>","warc-type":"conversion","warc-identified-content-language":"deu","warc-target-uri":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberes_Schloss_%28Greiz%29","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:28:21Z","content-length":"8267","warc-block-digest":"sha1:23QFJ3U5HWFYGR7JGY62P6ATQDR56LTD","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:377c0de8-4533-4393-a8be-14bf36e78aff>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"de","prob":0.9260833},"annotation":["short_sentences","header","footer"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"de","prob":0.99878377},{"label":"de","prob":0.997397},{"label":"de","prob":0.93805766},{"label":"de","prob":0.80987966},{"label":"de","prob":0.9886237},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":1.0000398},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.94852257},{"label":"de","prob":0.9984228},{"label":"de","prob":0.9992403},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977622},{"label":"de","prob":0.99263304},{"label":"de","prob":0.99615127},{"label":"de","prob":0.9976759},{"label":"de","prob":0.99936336},{"label":"de","prob":0.99957305},{"label":"de","prob":0.96283174},{"label":"de","prob":0.99535984},{"label":"de","prob":0.9984697},{"label":"de","prob":0.98911744},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982139},{"label":"de","prob":0.97053707},{"label":"de","prob":0.9756672},{"label":"de","prob":0.98629916},{"label":"de","prob":0.99697727},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.96715546},{"label":"de","prob":0.97751534},{"label":"de","prob":0.91165274},{"label":"de","prob":0.99270356},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9999872},{"label":"de","prob":0.96792597},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9903658},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.88950074},{"label":"de","prob":0.87427276},{"label":"de","prob":0.8655004},{"label":"de","prob":0.99673176},{"label":"de","prob":0.8786146},{"label":"de","prob":0.96769357},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9905733},{"label":"de","prob":0.87651515},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999641},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9983054},{"label":"de","prob":0.8360984},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9933651},{"label":"de","prob":0.9982039},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9814279},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9839815},{"label":"de","prob":0.98443884},{"label":"de","prob":0.8251154},{"label":"de","prob":0.9977983},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.99946755},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9946558},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9747632},{"label":"de","prob":0.8582621},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9998304},{"label":"de","prob":0.98334354},null,null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9961344},{"label":"de","prob":1.0000176},{"label":"de","prob":0.9943319},{"label":"de","prob":0.99941343},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.9609999},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.90221554},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.98002523},{"label":"de","prob":0.82613945},null,null,{"label":"ru","prob":0.8391272},{"label":"de","prob":0.83897585},null,{"label":"de","prob":0.85126376},{"label":"de","prob":0.9999543},{"label":"de","prob":0.9689946},{"label":"de","prob":0.9972098}]}}
{"content":"金大建（김대건；1821年8月21日－1846年9月16日），聖名安德肋（Andreas），是朝鮮半島天主教首位司铎（神父），亦是第一位殉道的神父（之前的都只是平信徒或外國傳教士）。他於1925年獲封為真福品，1984年5月6日榮登聖品。\n生平[编辑]\n金大建出生於朝鮮王朝末年的一個位於忠清南道的天主教家庭。他的高曾祖父本身是兩班後人，曾因為辛酉邪獄而被害。1836年，15歲的金大建領洗，並與崔良業（英语：Thomas Choe Yang-eop）等一行人前往澳門修讀神學。1845年8月17日，他在上海浦东金家巷聖母無染原罪堂獲祝聖晉鐸成為神父，並返回朝鮮傳教。他在1846年9月16日的丙午迫害中被斬首殉道，當時年僅25歲。\n1925年7月25日，金大建被庇護十一世封為真福品。1984年5月6日，金大建與其他102名韓國殉道聖人一起，被若望·保祿二世列為聖品，9月20日被確定為聖金大建及同伴紀念日(Ss. Andrew Kim Taegon and Companions)。他是韓國神職人員的主保。","warc_headers":{"warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:1c469506-cfb9-4110-bfb6-8f6174e97600>","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%A4%A7%E5%BB%BA","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:6c71fe0a-56de-418e-b6a6-ac73f394da31>","content-length":"1094","warc-block-digest":"sha1:6TPCSJ3K6HU5OODFX6HO2TXEKDDCYEFQ","warc-type":"conversion","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,jpn,kor","warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:04:00Z","content-type":"text/plain"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.9968463},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.9998959},{"label":"zh","prob":0.90491384},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99934715},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9941023}]}}
{"content":"若您熟悉来源语言和主题，请协助参考外语维基百科扩充条目。请勿直接提交机械翻译，也不要翻译不可靠、低品质内容。依版权协议，译文需在编辑摘要注明来源，或于讨论页顶部标记{{Translated page}}标签。\nFIFA系列游戏\n“FIFA”游戏官方logo\n类型\n体育游戏（SPG）\n开发商\nExtended Play Productions （1991-1997）\nEA Vancouver （1997-）\nEA Bucharest （2016-）\n发行商\nEA Sports\n平台\nAmiga, DOS, N-Gage, 32X, Mega-CD/Sega CD, Master System, Game Gear, Mega Drive/Sega Genesis, Sega Saturn, GameCube, Gizmondo, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo 64, Nintendo DS, Nintendo 3DS, Wii, Wii U, Nintendo Switch, Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, Microsoft Windows, iOS, Java Platform, Micro Edition, Android, Xbox 360, Xbox, Xbox One, Windows Phone, macOS, Zeebo\n首版平台\n3DO, Amiga, MS-DOS, Game Boy, Sega Game Gear, Sega Genesis, Sega CD, Sega Master System, Super NES\n首发时间\n每年（1993–）\n首作\nFIFA International Soccer\n1993年7月15日\n最新作\nFIFA 21\n2020年10月9日\n《FIFA》是足球类电子游戏的一种，该游戏类型又称“足球模拟器”, “FIFA”每年由艺电旗下的艺电体育（EA Sports）部门发布。Sensible Soccer，Kick Off，Match Day 是这类游戏的开山之作。足球类电子游戏从八十年代末开始发展，到艺电体育宣布足球游戏作为艺电体育（EA Sports）品牌的下一个新成员的时候，足球类电子游戏已经在游戏市场上具有竞争力。\n值得注意的是，这个系列在1993年末就得到了FIFA的官方许可。FIFA国际足球（《FIFA》系列第一代作品）就有许多联赛的独家许可，有德国的德国足球甲级联赛和德国足球乙级联赛、英国的英格兰足球超级联赛和足球联赛、意大利的意大利足球甲级联赛和意大利足球乙级联赛、西班牙的 西班牙足球甲级联赛和西班牙足球乙级联赛、法国的 法国足球甲级联赛和法国足球乙级联赛、葡萄牙的葡萄牙足球超级联赛、土耳其的土耳其足球超级联赛、荷兰的荷兰足球甲级联赛、墨西哥的墨西哥足球甲级联赛、美国的美国职业足球大联盟、韩国的K联赛、日本的日本甲組職業足球聯賽、沙特阿拉伯的沙特阿拉伯职业联赛、澳大利亚的A联赛、智利的智利足球甲级联赛、巴西的巴西足球甲级联赛、阿根廷的 阿根廷足球甲级联赛、中国的中国超级联赛。“FIFA”还可以在游戏里面使用真实的联赛名字、俱乐部名字、球员名字和肖像。此外，还拥有一些国际知名的俱乐部的许可，例如在希腊足球超级联赛和南非足球超级联赛中的一些俱乐部，但是没有当地整个联赛的许可。每一代“FIFA”主要是补充一些联赛的数据，例如 世界杯, 欧洲足球锦标赛、欧洲冠军联赛，也补充一系列新的足球管理的职称。\n克里斯蒂亚诺·罗纳尔多是《FIFA 18》的代言人，在《FIFA 18》的封面、促销活动和广告中都能看到他的身影。里奥·梅西从《FIFA 13》到《FIFA 16》连续四次担任代言人。自从《FIFA游戏》发布，多特蒙德前锋马尔科·罗伊斯开始担任这个版本的代言人。\n到了2011年，《FIFA》已经支持18种语言，并且在51个国家成功发布，更是被列入吉尼斯世界纪录最畅销体育电子游戏榜单。在2016年，《FIFA》系列已经售出1.5亿份。此外，《FIFA 12》发售第一周就卖出3200万份，零售额超过1.86亿美元，成为有史以来销售最快的体育游戏。\n目录\n1 历史\n2 游戏系列\n2.1 90年代\n2.1.1 FIFA国际足球（FIFA International Soccer）\n2.1.2 FIFA 95\n2.1.3 FIFA 96\n2.1.4 FIFA 97\n2.1.5 FIFA 98世界杯之路（FIFA: Road to World Cup 98）\n2.1.6 FIFA 99\n2.2 2000年以后\n2.2.1 FIFA 2000\n2.2.2 FIFA 2001\n2.2.3 FIFA足球2002（FIFA Football 2002）\n2.2.4 FIFA足球2003（FIFA Football 2003）\n2.2.5 FIFA足球2004（FIFA Football 2004）\n2.2.6 FIFA足球2005（FIFA Football 2005）\n2.2.7 FIFA 06\n2.2.8 FIFA 07\n2.2.9 FIFA 08\n2.2.10 FIFA 09\n2.3 2010年以后\n2.3.1 FIFA 10\n2.3.2 FIFA 11\n2.3.3 FIFA 12\n2.3.4 FIFA 13\n2.3.5 FIFA 14\n2.3.6 FIFA 15\n2.3.7 FIFA 16\n2.3.8 FIFA 17\n2.3.9 FIFA手机游戏（FIFA Mobile）\n2.3.10 FIFA 18\n2.3.11 FIFA 19\n2.3.12 FIFA 20\n2.3.13 FIFA 21\n3 其他版本\n3.1 FIFA网络游戏\n3.2 FIFA世界杯（FIFA World Cup licensed games）\n3.3 欧洲冠军杯（UEFA European Championship licensed games）\n3.4 欧洲冠军联赛（UEFA Champions League licensed games）\n3.5 街头足球（Street football games）\n3.6 经营游戏（Management games）\n4 参见\n5 参考文献\n6 外部链接\n历史[编辑]\n《FIFA 95》仅仅添加俱乐部比赛的功能，而《FIFA 96》则有重大创新，首次获得国际职业足球运动员联合会使用球员真实名字的许可。在PlayStation、PC、世嘉32X、世嘉土星上使用“虚拟足球场（Virtual Stadium）”引擎，能够使2D的球员在一个实时的3D足球场上运动。FIFA 97开始使用粗糙的多边形制作球员模型并添加室内足球场模式，但真正的成功则是《FIFA: Road to World Cup 98|FIFA 98世界杯之路》创造的。《FIFA: Road to World Cup 98|FIFA 98世界杯之路》拥有改进的图像、改良的游戏性和带有资格赛的完整世界杯赛程（包括在国家足联注册的所有国家队）。几个月以后，它成为第一个艺电（EA）官方认可的职业足球游戏。\n接下来几年游戏发行遭到不同程度的批评，玩家开始抱怨游戏中AI，还有从未被修复过的程序错误，售后服务质量差以及相比上一代太少的改进。随着游戏主机市场的不断扩大，《FIFA》不断受到其他同类游戏的挑战，比如科乐美的《实况足球》。《FIFA》和《实况足球》都拥有大量的支持者，即便如此，《FIFA》的销量仍然每年同比上升23%。\n2012年，艺电体育（EA Sports）和里奥·梅西签下《FIFA》的代言权，吸引他离开竞争对手《实况足球》。梅西的肖像很快就用在《街头FIFA》上。2013年，西班牙职业女子足球运动员Vero Boquete在Change.org上写下请愿书，要求艺电（EA）在《FIFA》中增加女性球员，请愿书在24小时内吸引两万人签名。\n游戏系列[编辑]\n90年代[编辑]\nFIFA国际足球（FIFA International Soccer）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA International Soccer\n代言人: David Platt and Piotr Świerczewski （Packie Bonner and Ruud Gullit in some versions）\n发售平台: PC, DOS, Amiga, Sega CD （as FIFA International Soccer Championship Edition）, 3DO, SNES, Mega Drive/Genesis, Master System, Sega Game Gear, Game Boy\n发售日期: 1993年12月15日\n在开发过程中被称为“EA Soccer”，有时也被称为“FIFA 94”，该系列的第一款游戏在1993年圣诞节前几周发布。 这个大肆炒作的足球游戏凭借它所采用的是等距视角而不是俯视视角（开球（Kick Off））、侧视视角（欧洲俱乐部足球)或者鸟瞰视角（Sensible Soccer) ，游戏只包含国家队，但没有球员的真实姓名。\nFIFA 94 有一个臭名昭著的错误，就是允许球员站在守门员面前，这样球就能从守门员身上反弹回球门，从而得分。FIFA 94 在英国游戏排行榜上超越街头霸王2排名第一，并且连续六个月占据第一的位置。\n世嘉Mega 将 FIFA 94 放在他们的五十大Mega Drive游戏中的第十一位。世嘉Mega的CD版本以“FIFA International Soccer Championship Edition（FIFA国际足球锦标赛版）”发布。它拥有FIFA 95中的一些功能，在原版的基础上提高了游戏的画质。这个版本在十大Mega CD游戏中排行第七。在3DO游戏机的是FIFA 94画质最高的版本，配备了虚拟3D摄像机（pseudo-3D cameras）。\n此外，PlayStation 2版本的FIFA 06包含FIFA 94的游戏内容，它是用于庆祝1994年美国成功举办世界杯。值得注意的是超级NES版本，尽管比世嘉Mega少了许多可选择的球队，但依然有三支国家队有资格参加“真实生活锦标赛 （the real-life tournament）”，它们是玻利维亚国家队、沙特阿拉伯国家队、韩国国家队。\n这款游戏之所以称为“国际足球（International Soccer）”，是因为如果美国人对它不感兴趣的话，EA也可以在欧洲成功销售。\nFIFA 95[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Soccer 95\n代言人: Erik Thorstvedt （在一些版本中是Alexi Lalas）\n发售平台: Mega Drive/Genesis\n发售日期: 1994年11月10日\nFIFA 96[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Soccer 96\n代言人: Frank de Boer和Jason McAteer （欧洲）\n发售平台: DOS/Windows, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Sega 32X, SNES, Mega Drive/Genesis, Sega Game Gear, Game Boy\n发售日期: 1995年9月30日\nFIFA 97[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 97\n代言人: David Ginola （欧洲）；Bebeto （其他地区）\n发售平台: DOS, Windows, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Mega Drive/Genesis, SNES, Game Boy\n发售日期: 1996年11月30日\nFIFA 98世界杯之路（FIFA: Road to World Cup 98）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA: Road to World Cup 98\n代言人: Roy Lassiter （美国）； David Beckham （英国）； Paolo Maldini （意大利）； David Ginola （法国）； Andreas Möller （德国）； Raúl （西班牙）\n主题音乐: \"Song 2\" by Blur\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Sega Saturn, SNES, Mega Drive/Genesis, Game Boy\n发售日期: 1997年11月8日\n宣传语：“你的唯一目标：晋级”\n此款游戏被许多人认为是《FIFA》系列中最优秀的一款。它拥有优化过的图形引擎，用户定制球员、球队的选项，16座真实的体育场，更高的AI以及受欢迎的“世界杯之路”模式和所有在国际足联注册的国家队。\n英国乐队Blur为这个游戏创作了著名歌曲《Song 2》。游戏开场音乐选用了英国乐队Chumbawamba的歌曲《Tubthumping》。\nFIFA 99[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 99\n代言人: Dennis Bergkamp （全球）, Kasey Keller （美国）, Fabien Barthez （法国）, Hidetoshi Nakata （日本）； Olaf Thon （德国）； Rui Costa （葡萄牙）； Christian Vieri （意大利）； Ahn Jung-hwan （韩国）； Fernando Morientes （西班牙）； Jason Kreis （美国测试版）\n主题音乐: \"The Rockafeller Skank （Remix）\" by Fatboy Slim\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, Nintendo 64\n发售日期: 1998年11月30日\n遊戲開場音樂選用了英國電子音樂大師Fatboy Slim（流線胖小子）的知名歌曲《The Rockafeller Skank》。\n2000年以后[编辑]\nFIFA 2000[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 2000\n代言人: Hidetoshi Nakata （日本）； Sol Campbell （英国）； Vincenzo Montella （意大利）； Pep Guardiola （西班牙）； Emmanuel Petit （法国）； Jaap Stam （Netherlands）； Vassilios Tsiartas （希腊）； Mehmet Scholl （德国）； Simão （葡萄牙）； Eddie Pope （美国）； Raí （巴西）； Par Zetterberg （Sweden）； Kim Byung-ji （韩国）； Kiatisak Senamuang （泰国）；\n主题音乐: \"It's Only Us\" by Robbie Williams\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, Game Boy Color\n发售日期: 1999年10月26日\nFIFA 2001[编辑]\nTemplate:Main Article\n代言人: Edgar Davids （Netherlands）； Paul Scholes （英国）； Gheorghe Hagi （Romania）； Ben Olsen （美国）； Ricardo Sá Pinto （葡萄牙）； Gaizka Mendieta （西班牙）； Filippo Inzaghi （意大利）； Lothar Matthäus （德国）； Thierry Henry （法国）； Leonardo （巴西）； Shimon Gershon （以色列）； Ko Jong-soo （韩国）\n主题音乐: \"Bodyrock\" by Moby\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, PlayStation\n发售日期: 2000年11月8日\nFIFA足球2002（FIFA Football 2002）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Football 2002\nFIFA 2002游戏界面\n代言人: Hidetoshi Nakata （日本）； Thierry Henry （France, UK）； Zlatan Ibrahimović （Sweden）； Nuno Gomes （葡萄牙）； Francesco Totti （意大利）； Ruud van Nistelrooy （Netherlands）； İlhan Mansız （土耳其）； Gerald Asamoah （德国）； Lampros Choutos （希腊）； Hong Myung-bo （韩国）； Sibusiso Zuma （South Africa & Denmark）； Nawaf Al-Temyat （Saudi Arabia）； Tomasz Radzinski （美国）； Roberto Carlos （巴西）； Iker Casillas （西班牙）； Tomasz Frankowski （波兰）；\n主题音乐: \"19-2000 （Soulchild Remix）\" by Gorillaz\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, GameCube, PlayStation\n发售日期: 2001年11月1日\n由于科乐美（Konami）在行业上的领先地位，电子艺界决定推出在射门和传球增加力量槽来改善游戏。但是，很多玩家注意到本游戏似乎在难度较高时预先设定比赛结果。《FIFA》的这个版本也不再使用原来的以颜色条代替队徽，而首次得到了全部球队的正式队徽。力量槽也可以根据玩家喜好来调整。\n均以得到的所有奖项\n电子艺界从意大利贴纸公司Panini（英语：Panini Group）购得版权，在玩家赢得某些奖项（欧洲冠军杯，欧洲联盟杯，世界杯欧洲区、南美洲区、中北美洲区、亚洲区预选赛以及后来分别激活欧锦赛、美洲杯、美洲金盃，以及亚洲杯，以及赢得以上所有奖项时激活的联合会杯）时，游戏将会颁发一张卡片，上有一位球员的照片。关于这个奖励系统经常被提出的问题就是赢得各种奖励对游戏的可玩性并没有什么改善。\n并且，已经晋级世界杯的法国（上届冠军）、日本和韩国（东道主）国家队也可以参加各自大洲的世界杯预选赛，并通过预选赛或者友谊赛来改变本国家队在国际足联的排名。\n球迷们期待着的国家队比赛模式中包括了所有的国家队和选择大名单的权利。但是，许多国家队的版权都没有得到，个别足联（比如非洲）的球队名单甚至都不完整。游戏中也没有非洲杯这项赛事。很多球迷非常愤怒，对电子艺界的信心也有所减弱。\n另外，《FIFA 2002》和前后版本的另一区别在于没有内置的世界杯模式，而是由电子艺界另外发行的。\nFIFA足球2003（FIFA Football 2003）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Football 2003\n代言人: Roberto Carlos, Ryan Giggs, and Edgar Davids （in the United States, only Landon Donovan appeared）\n主题音乐: \"To Get Down （Fatboy Slim remix）\" by Timo Maas\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation, Game Boy Advance, Mobile phone\n发售日期: 2002年11月5日\nFIFA足球2004（FIFA Football 2004）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Football 2004\n代言人: Thierry Henry, Alessandro Del Piero and Ronaldinho\n主题音乐: \"Red Morning Light\" by Kings of Leon\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation, Game Boy Advance, Nokia N-Gage, Mobile phone\n发售日期: 2003年10月8日\n本版《FIFA》除了增加了游戏的流畅性以外，并未对游戏引擎做太多修改。最大的新特性是增加了世界范围内的二级联赛。也就是说允许玩家使用一支二流乃至三流球队参加世界顶级联赛和欧洲冠军联赛。游戏有一个被称做“离球控制一”，即在某些情况下需要玩家同时操纵两个球员以完成一些花样。虽然理论上这个概念看起来很诱人，但由于操作太烦琐，玩家很难将它运用得很好。如果没有带方向杆的手柄，这样的操作甚至根本没办法完成。\nFIFA足球2005（FIFA Football 2005）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Football 2005\n代言人: Patrick Vieira, Fernando Morientes and Andriy Shevchenko （in North America, Oswaldo Sánchez replaced Patrick Vieira）\n主题音乐: \"Surfing on a Rocket\" by Air[需要消歧义]\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation, PlayStation Portable （America only）, Game Boy Advance, Nokia N-Gage, Gizmondo, Mobile phone\n发售日期: 2004年10月11日\nFIFA 06[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 06\n代言人: Wayne Rooney and Ronaldinho （in North America, Omar Bravo and Freddy Adu joined Ronaldinho on the cover）\n主题音乐: \"Helicopter\" by Bloc Party\n发售平台: GameCube, Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360\n发售日期： 2005年10月4日\nFIFA 07[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 07\n代言人: Wayne Rooney and Ronaldinho （全球）； Ronaldinho and Lukas Podolski （德国）； Ronaldinho, Landon Donovan and Francisco Fonseca （北美）； Ronaldinho and Juninho Pernambucano （法国）； Ronaldinho and David Villa （西班牙）\n主题音乐: \"Can't Get Enough （Mekon Remix）\" by The Infadels\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, Game Boy Advance, Java ME\n发售日期: 2006年9月27日\n《FIFA 07》中包括来自20个国家的27个联赛，510余支球队各有其精确真实的球衣和徽章。玩家可以参加 EA SPORTS™互动联赛，在网上用一支的俱乐部对抗各路对手，每周包括用户访谈在内的会播客宣传将玩家的胜绩。EA设计了全新的障碍比赛系统。此作强化了经理模式：使事物都接近真实。真实的资金、青年球员的成长、媒体和球迷的反应，令玩家全身心地沉浸在足球经理的世界中。人群会根据你的表现作出反应。进球和控球将会令球迷发出震耳的欢呼，赛事不利则会让他们垂头丧气。视角会集中在那些情绪特别明显的球员身上。玩家还可以创建你自己的俱乐部。\n《FIFA 07》同样有技术上的改进。使用左摇杆可以控制足球旋转，作出更具创造性的定位球和射门。游戏设置了更复杂的射门机制和更精确的操控。以及更高级的智能守门员，使得守门员的智能更真实，有着逼真的反应以及各种躲闪和救球动作。\nFIFA 08[编辑]\n代言人: Wayne Rooney and Ronaldinho （全球）； Ronaldinho and Miroslav Klose （德国）； Ronaldinho and Sergio Ramos （西班牙）； Ronaldinho, Jozy Altidore and Guillermo Ochoa （北美）； Ronaldinho and Euzebiusz Smolarek （波兰）；\n主题音乐: \"Sketches （20 Something Life）\" by La Rocca\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, Java ME\n发售日期: 2007年9月20日\nFIFA 09[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 09\n代言人: Wayne Rooney and Ronaldinho （全球）； Wayne Rooney and Sergio Ramos （西班牙）； Ronaldinho and Kevin Kuranyi （德国）； Ronaldinho and Balázs Dzsudzsák （Hungary）； Ronaldinho and Daniele De Rossi （意大利）； Ronaldinho, Maurice Edu and Guillermo Ochoa （北美）\n主题音乐: \"Let U Know\" by Plastilina Mosh\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, Java ME\n发售日期: 2008年10月3日\nFIFA 09是美国EA公司旗下由EA Canada小组负责开发的FIFA系列电子游戏，于2008年10月登陆Windows、任天堂DS、PlayStation 2、PlayStation 3、PlayStation Portable、Wii、Xbox 360和Zeebo平台，同年11月，登陆N-Gage 2.0和移动电话平台。游戏标语为“Let's FIFA 09”。\n2010年以后[编辑]\nFIFA 10[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 10\n代言人: Theo Walcott, Frank Lampard和Wayne Rooney （英国）； Wayne Rooney和Tim Cahill （澳大利亚）； Wayne Rooney和Andreas Ivanschitz （奥地利）； Wayne Rooney and Balázs Dzsudzsák （Hungary）, Wayne Rooney and Robert Lewandowski （波兰）； Ronaldinho和Giorgio Chiellini （意大利）； Karim Benzema, Steve Mandanda和Guillaume Hoarau （法国）； Wayne Rooney和Bastian Schweinsteiger （德国）； Frank Lampard和Simão （葡萄牙）； Karim Benzema和Xavi （西班牙）； Frank Lampard； Sacha Kljestan and Cuauhtémoc Blanco （北美）； Sergei Semak （俄罗斯）\n主题音乐: \"Nothing to Worry About\" by Peter Bjorn and John\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, iOS, Android, Java ME, Wii\n发售日期: 2009年10月2日（欧洲）, 2009年10月20日 （美国）\nFIFA 11[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 11\n代言人: Kaká （全球）, Wayne Rooney （英国，爱尔兰共和国，澳大利亚）, Mesut Özil & René Adler （德国）, Tim Cahill （澳大利亚）, Jakub Błaszczykowski （波兰）；\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, iOS, BlackBerry OS, Java ME\n发售日期: 2010年9月28日（美国）,，2010年10月1日（欧洲）\nFIFA 12[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 12\n代言人: Wayne Rooney and Jack Wilshere （英国，爱尔兰共和国）, Landon Donovan and Rafael Márquez （北美）, Jakub Błaszczykowski （波兰）；\n主题音乐: \"Kids\" by Sleigh Bells\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, OS X, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Portable, iOS, Java ME\n发售日期: 2011年9月27日（美国），2011年9月30日（欧洲）\n宣传语：“爱足球，玩足球”\nFIFA 13[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 13\n代言人: Lionel Messi （Joe Hart and Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain also feature in the UK version）, Jakub Błaszczykowski （波兰）；\n主题音乐: \"Club Foot\" by Kasabian\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, Wii U, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Portable, iOS, Windows Phone, Android, Java ME\n发售日期: 2012年9月25日（美国），2012年9月27日（澳大利亚），2012年9月28日（欧洲）\n《FIFA13》于2012年9月25日在北美区上市。梅西擔任此部作品的代言人。遊戲加入新的傳球、進球慶祝動作以及新的守門員撲救等動作或方式。同时在《FIFA 12》原有的30个联赛的基础中，新增了沙特职业足球联赛。FIFA 13中共有46支国家队。捷克和巴拉圭回到了游戏当中，印度、玻利维亚和委内瑞拉在自FIFA Football 2002以来的11年间断后也重返主系列。而克罗地亚则被去掉了。\nFIFA 14[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 14\n代言人: Lionel Messi（全球）, Javier Hernández （北美）,Stephan El Shaarawy （意大利）, Arturo Vidal and Radamel Falcao （阿根廷，智利，巴拿马，委内瑞拉）, Gareth Bale （英国，爱尔兰共和国）, Michal Kadlec （Czech Republic）, Robert Lewandowski （波兰）, Balázs Dzsudzsák （匈牙利）, Xherdan Shaqiri （瑞士）, David Alaba （奥地利）, Tim Cahill （澳大利亚）, Maya Yoshida and Makoto Hasebe （日本）, Mustafa Al-Bassas （中东）\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Portable, iOS, Windows Phone, Android, Java ME\n发售日期: 2013年9月24日（美国）2013年9月23日（欧洲）\n《FIFA14》在2013年9月下旬上市，梅西继续担任此部作品的代言人。支持的平台有PlayStation 2， PlayStation 3，PlayStation 4，PSP，PlayStation Vita，Xbox 360，Xbox One，Wii，Nintendo 3DS 和 Microsoft Windows，.同样放出了适合手机的版本，支持iOS，并且重新支持Android操作系统。在PlayStation 4和Xbox One上本作采用了全新的Ignite引擎， Ignite引擎融合了EA的全新的技术，通过全新的渲染，实时物理，动画，智能，运动和网上系统，构成了一个全新的、强力的引擎。EA表示，该引擎能够赋予游戏中运动员“类人的智慧”，玩家会体验到真正的运动员一样的变速和转向的敏捷性。\nFIFA 15[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 15\n代言人: Lionel Messi （全球）, Eden Hazard （英国，爱尔兰共和国，法国，比利时，荷兰）, Gonzalo Higuaín （意大利）, Clint Dempsey （美国）, Tim Cahill （澳大利亚）, Robert Lewandowski （波兰）, David Alaba （奥地利）, Xherdan Shaqiri （Switzerland）, Javier Hernández （Mexico）, Arturo Vidal （南非）, Michal Kadlec （Czech Republic）, Arda Turan （土耳其）, Atsuto Uchida （日本）, Yahya Al-Shehri （Arabian Peninsula）.\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, Wii, iOS, Android, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Windows 8.1, Windows Phone 8.1\n发售日期: 2014年9月23日（美国），2014年9月25日（欧洲），2014年9月26日（英国）\nFIFA 16[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 16\n代言人: Lionel Messi （全球）, Jordan Henderson （英国，爱尔兰共和国）, Shinji Kagawa （日本）, David Alaba （奥地利）, Oscar （巴西）, Antoine Griezmann （法国）, Eden Hazard (Belgium), Yann Sommer (Switzerland), Juan Cuadrado (Latin America), Marco Fabián (Mexico), Steph Catley & Tim Cahill （澳大利亚）, Alex Morgan （美国）, Christine Sinclair (Canada), Mauro Icardi （意大利）, Arkadiusz Milik （波兰）, Arda Turan （土耳其）, Omar Hawsawi （阿拉伯国家）, Sebastian Giovinco (美国职业足球大联盟版本)\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iOS, Android\n发售日期: 2015年9月22日（北美），2015年9月24日（欧洲），2015年10月1日（巴西），2015年10月8日（日本）\nFIFA 17[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 17\n代言人: Marco Reus (World, chosen by popular vote over Anthony Martial, Eden Hazard and James Rodríguez)\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One\n发售日期: 2016年9月27日（北美），2016年9月29日（全球）\n《FIFA 17》馬高·列奧斯担任此部作品的代言人。在PlayStation 4和Xbox One上本作采用了全新的引擎寒霜引擎（Frostbite Engine，即《Battlefield 4》引擎）开发，Frostbite引擎融合了EA的全新的技术，通过全新的渲染，实时物理，动画，智能，运动和网上系统，构成了一个全新的、强力的引擎。EA表示，该引擎能够赋予游戏中运动员“类人的智慧”，玩家会体验到真正的运动员一样的变速和转向的敏捷性。《FIFA 17》更加入了类似《NBA 2K16》「My Career」的剧情模式「The Journey」。在此模式下，玩家可以自创或使用现实既有的球员，去体验一次他们的球员生涯，从球场到球场外的生活应有尽有。\nFIFA手机游戏（FIFA Mobile）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Mobile\n代言人: Marco Reus(October 11, 2016 – December 23, 2016)；Eden Hazard(December 24, 2016 – October 31, 2017)；Cristiano Ronaldo(November 1, 2017 - present)\n发售平台: iOS, Android, Windows 10 Mobile\n发售日期: 2016年10月11日\nFIFA 18[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 18\n代言人: Cristiano Ronaldo （全球） & Ronaldo (Icon Edition)\n发售平台: Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.[1]\n发售日期: 2017年9月29日\n《FIFA 18》基斯坦奴·朗拿度担任此部作品的代言人。將會在 Xbox One、PS4 及 PC 平台上繼續採用「Frostbite」寒霜引擎 ，而新加入的 Nintendo Switch 則採用其他引擎開發。今年《FIFA 18》擁有更逼真的臨場氣氛、球場及球員的細緻度均有所提高，而且更引入新玩家控制模式及新的團隊風格，增強了遊戲的可玩性。此外，廠方指出球員的人物特性將更進一步，透過找來球星們進行度身的 motion capture，像 C罗標誌性奔跑、斯特林獨特的轉身或基士文的特別都能夠如實還原出來，不論控球在腳或是無球走動時均會更加真實，与此同时首次加入了对简体中文的支持。\n《FIFA 17》加入的剧情模式「The Journey」來到《FIFA 18》，緊接上集 「The Journey」 故事贏得 FA CUP 之後亦來到續集: The Journey 2 : Hunter Returns。玩家將會繼續使用 Alex Hunter 在職業生涯中尋找更多機會，拍其進行重大的轉會決定、比賽、訓練等。而且今集更可以替主角轉換髮型、顏色、紋身等等，讓玩家可以像 BE A PRO 般自訂球員外形! 值得一提，在 FIFA 18 玩家可以和朋友一起進行 Local 主機上的多人遊戲，玩法更加靈活。 FIFA FUT ICON 一直是最受玩家歡迎的遊戲模式之一，而今集更加入多位超級經典球星坐陣，包括:巴西的朗拿度、比利，阿根廷的馬勒當拿、法國的亨利、以及超經典、被喻為史上最強門將「八爪魚」耶辛等等。除此之外，Ultimate Team、開球模式、地方賽季、職業生涯、在線賽季、錦標賽、女子世界盃和技能挑戰在內的模式均可以在 FIFA 18 中找到，滿足不同足球粉絲的口味。\nFIFA 19[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 19\n封面球员：基斯坦奴·朗拿度（第一版） 内马尔、凯文·德布劳内、保罗·迪巴拉（第二版）\n发售平台:Microsoft Windows、PlayStation 4, Xbox One、Nintendo Switch、PlayStation 3和Xbox 360\n发售日期: 2018年9月28日\n《FIFA 19》克里斯蒂亚诺·罗纳尔多继续担任此部作品的代言人。将会在 Xbox One、PS4 及 PC 平台上继续采用寒霜引擎开发 ，而 Nintendo Switch 则继续采用其他引擎开发。E3 2018展前发布会就确认传闻， 正式公佈欧洲冠军联赛将会加入《FIFA 19》 , 并同时公开相关宣传片以及推出时间。系列首次加入中国足球协会超级联赛赛事。\nFIFA 20[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 20\n封面球员：艾登·阿扎尔（标准版）和齐内丁·齐达内（终极版）\n发售平台:Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One和Nintendo Switch\n发售日期: 2019年9月27日\nFIFA 20将包括3v3 Rush（No GK）、4v4 Rush、5v5和专业五人制足球模式。游戏强调技能和独立，而不是战术或团队。玩家还可以自定义自己的球员;除了选择性别之外，玩家还可以选择各种衣服和配饰，从鞋子，衣服到帽子和纹身。传统的11v11模式也发生了变化，鼓励更多的1对1，以及新的点球和任意球机制。尤文图斯本次将不会参加FIFA 20，因为他与世界足球競賽2020签署了合作协议，利物浦宣布与EA达成“长期”合作关系。\nFIFA 21[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA 21\n封面球员：基利安·姆巴佩（冠軍版和终极版）大衛·碧咸(標準版)\n发售平台:Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Stadia和Nintendo Switch\n发售日期: 2020年10月6日 2020年12月4日(PlayStaion 5和Xbox Series X/S版)\n本作對於中文玩家而言，是系列首次增加了中文的遊戲解說，由蘇東和王濤擔當[2]。此外本作是系列在任天堂Switch平台上首次加入中文的遊戲內容。 [3]。值得一提的是PlayStation 5或Xbox Series X/S玩家將不能與PlayStation 4或Xbox One的玩家進行同品牌下的跨平台連線遊戲。[4]\n其他版本[编辑]\nFIFA网络游戏[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA Online video games\n2006年，艺电（EA）发布了专门针对亚洲市场的在线游戏版本。\nFIFA Online\nFIFA Online 2\nFIFA Online （western version）\nFIFA Online 3\nFIFA Online 4\nFIFA世界杯（FIFA World Cup licensed games）[编辑]\n主条目：FIFA World Cup video games\n1997年，艺电（EA）从FIFA购买了版权，在每一届世界杯比赛开始之前发布FIFA官方世界杯游戏，艺电（EA）到目前依然持有该版权。\nWorld Cup 98\n2002 FIFA World Cup\n2006 FIFA World Cup\n2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa\n2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil\n2018 FIFA World Cup （作为FIFA 18的免费更新）\n欧洲冠军杯（UEFA European Championship licensed games）[编辑]\n主条目：UEFA European Championship video games\n同“FIFA世界杯”游戏，2000年，艺电（EA）从欧洲足球协会联盟购买了版权，在每一届欧洲冠军杯比赛开始之前发布UEFA官方欧洲冠军杯游戏。\nUEFA Euro 2000\nUEFA Euro 2004\nUEFA Euro 2008\nUEFA Euro 2012（不是一个独立游戏,而是FIFA 12的扩展包）\n欧洲冠军联赛（UEFA Champions League licensed games）[编辑]\n主条目：UEFA Champions League video games\nUEFA Champions League 2004–2005\nUEFA Champions League 2006–2007\nFIFA 19\n街头足球（Street football games）[编辑]\nFIFA Street （2005）\nFIFA Street 2 （2006）\nFIFA Street 3 （2008）\nFIFA Street （2012）\n经营游戏（Management games）[编辑]\nFIFA Manager series\nFIFA Soccer Manager （1997）\nThe FA Premier League Football Manager 99\nThe FA Premier League Football Manager 2000\nThe FA Premier League Football Manager 2001\nThe FA Premier League Football Manager 2002\nTotal Club Manager 2003\nTotal Club Manager 2004\nTotal Club Manager 2005\nFIFA Manager 06\nFIFA Manager 07\nFIFA Manager 08\nFIFA Manager 09\nFIFA Manager 10\nFIFA Manager 11\nFIFA Manager 12\nFIFA Manager 13\nFIFA Manager 14\n参见[编辑]\nPro Evolution Soccer\nElectronic Arts\n参考文献[编辑]\n^ FIFA 18 - 发售日期, trailer, The Journey 2 details and everything you need to know. gamesradar. [2017-06-11]. （原始内容存档于2017-06-11） （英语）.\n^ 苏东和王涛成为《FIFA 21》中文解说员.网易游戏.2020-09-10.[2020-09-18].\n^ 中文玩家圆梦!《FIFA21遗产版》终于有中文了.新浪看点.2020-09-16.[2020-09-18].\n^ FIFA 21 Won't Feature Cross-Play, Even Across Console Generations （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.IGN.2020-08-19.[2020-09-18].\n外部链接[编辑]\n官方网站\nEA Sports Football\n查\n论\n编\nFIFA系列\nFIFA系列\nFIFA国际足球\n95\n96\n97\n98\n99\n2000（英语：FIFA 2000）\n2001\n2002（英语：FIFA Football 2002）\n2003（英语：FIFA Football 2003）\n2004（英语：FIFA Football 2004）\n2005（英语：FIFA Football 2005）\n06（英语：FIFA 06）（世界杯之路（英语：FIFA 06: Road to FIFA World Cup））\n07\n08\n09\n10\n11\n12\n13\n14\n15\n16\n17\n18\n19\n20\n21\nFIFA世界杯系列\n世界杯98\n2002 FIFA 世界杯\n2006 FIFA 世界杯\n2010年南非世界杯\n2014年巴西世界杯\n相关条目\n国际足联电子竞技世界杯\n手機遊戲\nFIFA 16\nFIFA Mobile\nFIFA Online系列\nFIFA Online\nFIFA Online 2\nFIFA Online 3\nFIFA Online 4\n查\n论\n编\nFIFA\n国际足联历史（英语：History of FIFA） · 国际足联公平竞赛曲 · 国际足联大会 (列表) · 国际足联理事会（英语：FIFA Council） · 国际足联道德委员会（英语：FIFA Ethics Committee） · 国际足联总部 · 夏季奥林匹克运动会足球比赛 · 足球协会列表 · 国际足球协会理事会 · 足球时间线（英语：Timeline of association football）\n模式\n英式足球 · 沙灘足球 · 室内五人制足球\n协会\nAFC · CAF · CONCACAF · CONMEBOL · OFC · UEFA\n男子賽事\n國際足協世界盃 · 國際足協U-20世界盃 · 國際足協U-17世界盃 · 国际足联俱乐部世界杯 · 國際足協室內五人足球世界盃 · 國際足總沙灘足球世界盃 · 国际足联青年杯\n女子賽事\n國際足協女子世界盃 · 國際足協U-20女子世界盃 · 國際足協U-17女子世界盃\n其他賽事\n国际足联电子竞技世界杯\n主席\n罗伯特·格林 (1904–1906) · 丹尼爾·伯利·伍爾福爾（英语：Daniel Burley Woolfall） (1906–1918) · 儒勒·雷米 (1921–1954) · 羅爾多夫·威廉·塞爾德拉耶爾（英语：Rodolphe Seeldrayers） (1954–1955) · 阿瑟·德魯里（英语：Arthur Drewry） (1955–1961) · 斯坦利·劳斯 (1961–1974) · 若昂·阿维兰热 (1974–1998) · 塞普·布拉特 (1998–2015) · 伊萨·哈亚图（英语：Issa Hayatou） (2015-2016，代理) · 詹尼·因凡蒂诺 (2016-)\n总秘书长\n路易斯·穆林豪斯（英语：Louis Muhlinghaus） (1904–1906) · 威廉·赫希曼（英语：Cornelis August Wilhelm Hirschman） (1906–1931) · 伊沃·史克里克（英语：Ivo Schricker） (1932–1951) · 库尔特·加斯曼（英语：Kurt Gassmann） (1951–1960) · 赫尔穆特·凯瑟（英语：Helmut Käser） (1961–1981) · 塞普·布拉特 (1981–1998) · 米歇尔·曾·鲁芬宁（英语：Michel Zen-Ruffinen） (1998–2002) · 乌尔斯·林西（英语：Urs Linsi） (2002–2007) · 杰罗姆·瓦尔克（英语：Jérôme Valcke） (2007–2015) · 马库斯·卡特纳（英语：Markus Kattner） (2015-2016，代理) · 法特玛·萨穆拉（英语：Fatma Samoura） (2016-)\n獎項\nFIFA 100 · 国际足联金球奖 · 国际足联冠军徽章 · 國際足協二十世紀最佳球會 · 国际足联发展奖 · 国际足联公平竞赛奖 · 国际足联世纪足球小姐（英语：FIFA Female Player of the Century） · 国际足联年度最佳阵容 · 国际足联荣誉奖 · 国际足联世纪最佳球员 · 国际足联主席特别奖 · 国际足联普斯卡什奖 · 国际足联女子世界杯奖（英语：FIFA Women's World Cup awards） · 国际足联年度最佳教练奖（英语：FIFA World Coach of the Year） · 国际足联世界杯史上最佳阵容 · 國際足協世界盃夢幻陣容 · 世界盃榮譽 · 國際足協世界足球先生 · 國際足總最佳足球獎 · 国际足联年度最佳门将\n排名\n國際足協世界排名 · （旧赛制：1999-2006（英语：FIFA World Ranking system (1999–2006)） · 2006-2018（英语：FIFA World Ranking system (2006–2018)）） · 國際足協女子世界排名\n大会\n第51届 (1998年 巴黎) · 第53届 (2002年 首尔) · 第61届 (2011年 苏黎世)（英语：61st FIFA Congress） · 第65届 (2015年 苏黎世) · 特别代表大会 (2016年 苏黎世) · 第69届 (2019年 巴黎)\n腐败\n“FIFA的肮脏秘密（英语：FIFA's Dirty Secrets）” · 加西亚报告（英语：Garcia Report） · 2015年國際足協收賄案 · 被禁足球官员名单（英语：FIFA Ethics Committee#Football officials banned）\n其他\n《FIFA系列》 · 国际足联联合会杯 · 国际足联国家代码列表 · 国际足联纪律准则 · 国际足联世界杯球迷节（英语：FIFA Fan Fest） · 《FIFA足球世界（英语：FIFA Futbol Mundial）》 · 国际足联资格规则（英语：FIFA eligibility rules） · 国际足联国际比赛日历（英语：FIFA International Match Calendar） · FIFA国际裁判名录 · 国际足联硕士（英语：FIFA Master） · 国际足联转会匹配系统（英语：FIFA Transfer Matching System） · 國際足協世界盃獎盃 · 非国际足联足球 · 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{"content":"比翁河畔布瓦尼（法語：Boigny-sur-Bionne）是法国卢瓦雷省的一个市镇，位于该省西部，省会奥尔良市区以东，卢瓦尔河右岸，属于奥尔良区。该市镇总面积7.53平方公里，2009年时的人口为2139人。[1]","warc_headers":{"warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:398385d5-d552-408e-9d37-6f8e02056697>","warc-identified-content-language":"zho","content-length":"257","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E7%BF%81%E6%B2%B3%E7%95%94%E5%B8%83%E7%93%A6%E5%B0%BC","warc-block-digest":"sha1:VC7UQF53DFDG3GVVX2KDY5LC2ZDSZAKG","content-type":"text/plain","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:00:24Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:f084db21-b1df-46e7-bcfa-92ed9e04af94>"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.99430144},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.99430144}]}}
{"content":"人称是与语言中的行为动作相关的话语角色。“妈妈喂宝宝吃饭”和“我喂你吃饭”，意思可能相同，但前者是用有词汇意义的名词来表示与“喂”相关的人的具体身份，后者才是用功能性的形式来表示话语角色这一抽象概念。话语角色的确定取决于具体的交际事件，因此人称是句子进入交际的重要标志之一[1]。\n人称范畴的表达可以通过独立的代词或不独立的附缀和屈折形式等来表达。狭义的人称范畴就指动词的屈折变化所表示的诸类人称意义。一般来说，独立的人称代词比不独立的形式区分的意义更多。如英语中，人称代词区分I/you/he/she/it/we/they等，还有格的变化；在be动词里，就只区分am/are/is；在现在时单数的动词后，只有第三人称加-s，也不区分性。\n在某些特定情况下，如在表示与“性数格时体态”等形态语法范畴并列时，人称可以省称为“身”。\n目录\n1 人称范畴\n1.1 人称\n1.1.1 一、二人称和第三人称\n1.2 常见的相关范畴\n1.2.1 数\n1.2.2 性\n1.2.3 回指\n1.2.4 旁指\n2 尊称\n3 人称代词\n4 一致关系\n5 相关条目\n6 注释\n7 参考文献\n人称范畴[编辑]\n人称[编辑]\n一般来说，表示说话方的称为第一人称，表示听话方的是第二人称，表示说话方和听话方之外的是第三人称。\n有些语言学家认为只存在两种人称：只有第一人称和第二人称是表示在场者的，而表示不在场者的第三人称严格来说不属人称范畴。但这种观点并未得到大多数语言学家的支持。\n有些语言学家认为存在“第四人称”。但在不同的研究者的笔下，“第四人称”一词的所指并不统一。相对常见的是用来表示和本指（proximate）相对的旁指（obviavite），有时也用于话语代词（logophoric）或反身代词。总的来说，大部分语言学家不认为存在可以和前三人称同属同一聚合的第四人称。\n根据目前的资料，世界上几乎所有的语言中都区分三类人称。安娜·谢维尔斯卡曾提到，在马都拉语（属南岛语系）中，只有两个人称代词，分别是表示第一人称主格和宾格的sengkop和表示第一人称所有格的tang，指代二、三人称时则使用具有词汇意义的名词[2]；在Barai语（属巴布亚诸语言）中，表示时和人称的动词后缀并不区分第二人称和第三人称（不管单数还是复数）[3]。但谢维尔斯卡没有提及马都拉语中的词缀是否能区分二、三人称、用于指代的名词是否有语法化的趋势，Barai语的人称代词系统中是否也不分二、三人称，因此还不能认为这两种语言中只有两种人称[4]。\n一、二人称和第三人称[编辑]\n一、二人称和第三人称的对立也可以视为一种普遍的语言现象。因为一、二人称是现场指，与第三人称不同。一、二人称的词形、句法特征等往往类似，而与第三人称不同。如上古汉语中，第一人称的吾、我、卬和第二人称的汝、尔、若都是鼻音声母，韵部也相近；而第三人称的其、之等声韵与之并无关系，且都是从一般的指示代词转化而来，都不能作为主语出现。很多语言中可能经历了一个只有第一、二人称形式的阶段，第三人称形式则较迟出现[5]。\n常见的相关范畴[编辑]\n数[编辑]\n人称范畴往往和数范畴相关。约瑟夫·格林伯格认为，人称范畴存在数的区别是一种语言共性[6]。但也有后来的研究发现不存在人称的单复数区别的语言，如Mura Pirahã语（见于巴西亚马逊河流域）中，独立代词和动词附缀都不区别三身的单复数。上古汉语中，我、吾、尔、汝都可以兼表单数和复数[7]。但这类语言很少见。就绝大多数语言而言，弱化代词不区分数、独立代词有数的对立是最为常见的[8]。\n人称的复数不是简单的和单数对应。第一人称复数可以有三种理解：说话人和听话人（1+2，最小包括式，minimal inclusive），说话人、听话人和第三方（1+2+3，强化包括式，augmented inclusive），说话人和第三方（1+3，排除式，exclusive）[9]。同样的，第二人称复数可以有两种理解，多个听话人（2+2），听话人和第三方（2+3）。第三人称复数只有一种理解（3+3）。约有1/2弱的语言可以区分第一人称的包括式（1+2（+3））和排除式（1+3）。如汉语北方方言中的我们（排除式）和咱们（包括式）。但区别最小包括式（1+2）和强化包括式（1+2+3）、或区别两种第二人称复数的语言所占比例就较小。\n一些语言的数范畴还区分双数、三数、少量数等。在第一人称双数中，包括式-排除式的对立比在复数中更加明显，因此在这些语言中的人称系统中，往往也都区分第一人称的包括式和排除式。\n总体来看，数范畴在人称系统中的表现受人称等级序列影响，第一人称>第二人称>第三人称。单复数的对立在第一人称中最为常见，第三人称最少见；第一人称复数的内部区别（包括式-排除式）最多，第三人称最少。\n性[编辑]\n人称范畴也常常和性范畴相关联。在第三人称中区分性范畴最为多见，如英文中第三人称有he（他）、she（她）、it（它）之分，而第一、二人称没有。这是因为第一、二人称的所指都是在场的，其性是不言自明的；而第三人称常常不在话语现场，可能需要区分性范畴来确定所指。格林伯格将之概括为如果性的对立出现在第一人称中，则一定也会出现在第三或第二人称中[6]。\n人称系统中的数范畴对性范畴也有影响。一般来说，人称的性对立更多体现在单数上。格林伯格的概括是，如果代词的复数有任何性的区别，那么单数也会有某种区别[6]。但后来的研究表明，如果性的对立不是阴性-阳性（-中性），而是人类-非人类或有生性-无生性的话，这一共性存在较多的例外。\n回指[编辑]\n不作为直接指在话语中第一次提及的对象，而用来指上文刚提及的对象，称为回指。如汉语中，“小李在洗他的衣服”中的“他”，既可以指小李自己，也可以指别人，不区分回指，需根据上文下理才能判断，而在一些语言中会区分。\n旁指[编辑]\n旁指主要存在于第三人称。在提到多个第三人称时，按照凸显程度，可以分出较凸显的本指（proximate）和较不凸显的旁指（obviative），有时还可以有更不凸显的旁另指。如汉语中，他在打他中不区分两个他的本指和旁指，而在一些语言中会区分。","warc_headers":{"content-type":"text/plain","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/%E4%BA%BA%E7%A7%B0","warc-block-digest":"sha1:XAA6TI7C5A4ZY22WPJGM3JIBH73DGXQW","warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:10:21Z","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:dab994d2-9ab9-46f1-b5bb-6f182e7b9cf4>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:afc90286-3d95-4687-8416-bc02a8b430c8>","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,eng","content-length":"6903","warc-type":"conversion"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.9730377},"annotation":["short_sentences","header"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.9963762},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9672166},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9984235},{"label":"zh","prob":1.000054},{"label":"zh","prob":0.8190064},{"label":"ja","prob":0.89715964},{"label":"zh","prob":0.96486026},{"label":"zh","prob":0.877497},null,null,null,null,{"label":"ja","prob":0.92982715},{"label":"zh","prob":0.98168707},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9992646},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99999523},{"label":"zh","prob":0.96494144},{"label":"ja","prob":0.997546},{"label":"zh","prob":0.96443385},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9788075},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9964148},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9983548},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9934604},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9902293},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9921294},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99577814},{"label":"zh","prob":0.89727247},null,{"label":"zh","prob":0.96724296},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9940987},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9996703},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99560964},null,{"label":"zh","prob":0.9950376},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99448335},{"label":"zh","prob":0.805163},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99598217},null,{"label":"zh","prob":0.99647546}]}}
{"content":"斯堪的納維亞貨幣聯盟（或北歐貨幣聯盟，瑞典語：Skandinaviska myntunionen，丹麥語：Skandinaviske møntunion，挪威語：Skandinaviske myntunion）是由北歐國家──瑞典和丹麥於1873年5月5日組成的貨幣聯盟，為19世紀斯堪的納維亞政治運動的產物之一。它們把各自的貨幣按票面值透過金價互相固定。當時挪威雖然與瑞典組成君合，但它對內擁有完全自治權；挪威於兩年後加入貨幣聯盟，把其貨幣與金價掛勾成每克金2.48克朗，或約每克朗0.403克金[1]，與丹麥、瑞典同等。貨幣聯盟內流通等值的克朗，取代了三國原有的貨幣，其兌換率為：1丹麥元=2挪威元=4瑞典元。\n斯堪的納維亞貨幣聯盟只固定各國貨幣的兌換率和穩定性，各國仍可繼續發行各自的貨幣。由於貨幣同盟提供的安全感，三國各自的貨幣甚至於整個北歐地區都被視為「法定貨幣」來流通。\n加入聯盟之後，瑞典把其貨幣從「元」改為瑞典克朗，丹麥稱為丹麥克朗，挪威加入後也發行挪威克朗。「克朗」字面上就是王冠的意思；因應各國語言差異，各國「克朗」的實際拼寫都不同。\n1905年，瑞典-挪威聯合解散，成為兩個獨立王國，但這不影響貨幣聯盟間的合作。事實上，貨幣聯盟於1914年解散，是由於第一次世界大戰，瑞典於1914年8月2日終止與金價的掛勾。失去固定匯率後，三國貨幣自由流通的時代便告終。\n雖然三國至今仍然使用貨幣聯盟時代的貨幣──克朗，但相互之間已沒有掛勾。冰島於1918年成為丹麥治下的一個王國後，也發行了冰島克朗。第二次世界大戰期間，丹麥被納粹德國侵佔後數年，冰島便宣告獨立成共和國，仍沿用冰島克朗。","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T10:59:56Z","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,jpn","content-length":"1857","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A0%AA%E7%9A%84%E7%B4%8D%E7%B6%AD%E4%BA%9E%E8%B2%A8%E5%B9%A3%E8%81%AF%E7%9B%9F","warc-type":"conversion","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:3a3bfd6b-7dff-4a91-97e5-2efc5a9268e5>","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:a076ff15-3cef-43ea-bf26-20423f81ab08>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-block-digest":"sha1:E3CUBPGMCUX7GFAOJUK2UPWFZOX4AK6F"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.9822609},"annotation":null,"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.9654583},{"label":"zh","prob":0.97885597},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9932902},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9999376},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99791044}]}}
{"content":"產品設計規格（product design specification，簡稱PDS）是一份文件，可以說明設計方式、所預期達到目的，以及設計和需求的符合程度。需求可以從產品需求規格（Product Requirement Specification，簡稱PRS）中產生。產品設計規格的目的是在確認產品後續的設計及開發可以符合使用者的需要（或需求）。產品設計規格是产品生命周期管理中的文件之一。","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:47:01Z","warc-type":"conversion","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:28ff07c2-a266-47b1-9a8c-f889f267d736>","content-length":"451","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:5b7b838b-5205-4ce6-b42b-bd7eded72cd6>","content-type":"text/plain","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,jpn","warc-block-digest":"sha1:6GGYRNJM5TFGGNSI3SJ74MHHX4SKVCNI","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%A2%E5%93%81%E8%A8%AD%E8%A8%88%E8%A6%8F%E6%A0%BC"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.99655944},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.99655944}]}}
{"content":"基吉區（俄語：Кигинский район），是俄羅斯的一個區，位於該國西南部，由巴什科爾托斯坦共和國負責管轄，始建於1930年8月20日，面積1,688平方公里，2010年人口19,137，人口密度每平方公里11.34人。","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T11:49:22Z","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:33412ae7-119b-4540-ad7d-0da9fc211adf>","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:70955d64-59c7-4497-a03b-83697b698441>","content-length":"269","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,eng,bel","content-type":"text/plain","warc-type":"conversion","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%90%89%E5%8D%80","warc-block-digest":"sha1:PQ3B7PFYPFNAWWXS2MA7GTPSV4CCSQBW"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.99998015},"annotation":["tiny"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.99998015}]}}
{"content":"藝術電影的題材以及素質與主流好萊塢電影有明顯的分別，通常具備一些獨特的元素。例如：著重社會寫實（英语：social realism）(social realism)風格、著重呈現導演創作視野的作者論(auteur theory)、注視主角的思想或夢想場景，而非呈現清晰及目標主導的故事。\n歷史[编辑]\n參見[编辑]\n邪典電影\n實驗電影\n獨立精神獎\n聖丹斯電影節\n電影類型\n參考資料[编辑]\nBordwell, David; Kristin Thompson. Film Art: An Introduction Seventh edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2003. ISBN 9780073386164. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (link)","warc_headers":{"warc-date":"2021-09-16T12:17:30Z","content-type":"text/plain","warc-target-uri":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93%E9%9B%BB%E5%BD%B1","warc-type":"conversion","warc-record-id":"<urn:uuid:dd971ed9-1cb7-4a66-9480-135877c832c1>","content-length":"676","warc-refers-to":"<urn:uuid:9d29c8cf-df70-4ad7-b3c8-8373e0ec55bc>","warc-block-digest":"sha1:MFKP3CCMXOGZ7ITJVZN22275UHQFCEZE","warc-identified-content-language":"zho,eng"},"metadata":{"identification":{"label":"zh","prob":0.66191506},"annotation":["short_sentences"],"sentence_identifications":[{"label":"zh","prob":0.9694649},{"label":"zh","prob":0.89899933},{"label":"zh","prob":0.82011425},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9998771},{"label":"zh","prob":0.99995345},{"label":"zh","prob":1.0000215},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9996906},{"label":"zh","prob":1.000046},{"label":"zh","prob":0.9893935},null]}}