"Faulkner" redirects here. For other uses, see Faulkner (disambiguation) and William Faulkner (disambiguation).
William Faulkner
Faulkner in 1954, photographed by Carl Van Vechten
Born
William Cuthbert Falkner
(1897-09-25)September 25, 1897
New Albany, Mississippi, U.S.
Died
July 6, 1962(1962-07-06) (aged 64)
Byhalia, Mississippi, U.S.
Language
English
Nationality
American
Alma mater
University of Mississippi
Period
1919–1962
Notable works
The Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, Light in August, Absalom, Absalom!, "A Rose for Emily", "The Bear"
Notable awards
Nobel Prize in Literature (1949)
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (1955, 1963)
National Book Award (1951, 1955)
Spouse
Estelle Oldham

(m. 1929)
Signature
William Cuthbert Faulkner (/ˈfɔːknər/;[1][2] September 25, 1897 – July 6, 1962) was an American writer known for his novels and short stories set in the fictional Yoknapatawpha County, based on Lafayette County, Mississippi, where Faulkner spent most of his life. Faulkner is one of the most celebrated writers of American literature, and is widely considered one of the best writers of Southern literature.
Born in northern Mississippi, Faulkner's family moved to Oxford, Mississippi when he was a young child. With the outbreak of World War I, he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force but he did not serve in combat. Returning to Oxford, he attended the University of Mississippi for three semesters before dropping out. He then moved to New Orleans, where he wrote his first novel Soldiers' Pay (1925). Returning to Oxford, he wrote Sartoris (1927), his first work which is set in Yoknapatawpha County. In 1929, he published The Sound and the Fury. The following year, he wrote As I Lay Dying. Seeking greater economic success, he went to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter.
Faulkner's renown reached its peak upon the publication of Malcolm Cowley's The Portable Faulkner and his 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the only Mississippi-born Nobel laureate. Two of his works, A Fable (1954) and his last novel The Reivers (1962), won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.[3] His economic success allowed him to purchase an estate in Oxford, Rowan Oak. Faulkner died from a heart attack on July 6, 1962 related to a fall from his horse the prior month.
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked his 1929 novel The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century; also on the list were As I Lay Dying (1930) and Light in August (1932). Absalom, Absalom! (1936) appears on similar lists.
Contents
1 Life
1.1 Childhood and heritage
1.2 Trip to the North and early writings
1.3 New Orleans and early novels
1.4 The Sound and the Fury
1.5 Light in August and foray into Hollywood
1.6 Final years and death
2 Writing
3 Legacy
3.1 Awards
3.2 Collections
3.3 Critical reception
4 Selected list of works
5 Filmography
6 Notes and references
6.1 Notes
6.2 Citations and references
6.3 Works cited
7 External links
Life[edit]
Childhood and heritage[edit]
William Cuthbert Faulkner was born on September 25, 1897 in New Albany, Mississippi,[4] the first of four sons of Murry Cuthbert Falkner (August 17, 1870 – August 7, 1932) and Maud Butler (November 27, 1871 – October 16, 1960).[5] His family was upper middle-class, "not quite of the old feudal cotton aristocracy".[6] Soon after his first birthday, his family moved to Ripley, Mississippi, where his father worked as the treasurer for the family-owned Gulf & Chicago Railroad Company.[7] Murry hoped to inherit the railroad from his father, John Wesley Thompson Falkner, but John had little confidence in Murry's ability to run a business and sold it. Following the sale of the railroad business, Murry proposed a plan to get a new start for his family by moving to Texas to become a rancher. Maud disagreed with this proposition,[8] and they moved instead to Oxford, Mississippi in 1902,[9] where Murry's father owned several businesses, making it easy for Murry to find work.[10] Thus, four days prior to William's fifth birthday, the Falkner family settled in Oxford, where he lived on and off for the rest of his life.[5][11] After 15 years in Oxford, Faulkner's father became the business manager of the University of Mississippi.[12]
His family, particularly his mother Maud, his maternal grandmother Lelia Butler, and Caroline "Callie" Barr (the African American nanny who raised him from infancy) influenced the development of Falkner's artistic imagination. Both his mother and his grandmother were avid readers as well as painters and photographers, educating him in visual language. While Murry enjoyed the outdoors and encouraged his sons to hunt, track, and fish, Maud valued education and took pleasure in reading and going to church. She taught her sons to read before she sent them to public school and she also exposed them to literary classics such as the works of Charles Dickens and the Grimms' Fairy Tales.[10]
Faulkner was influenced by stories of his great-grandfather and namesake William Clark Falkner.
Falkner spent his boyhood listening to stories which were told to him by his elders including stories which were about the Civil War, slavery, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Falkner family. Falkner's grandfather also told him about the exploits of William's great-grandfather and namesake, William Clark Falkner, who was a successful businessman, writer, and Confederate hero. Telling stories about "Old Colonel", as his family called him, had already become something of a family pastime when Faulkner was a boy.[10] According to one of Falkner's biographers, by the time William was born, his great-grandfather had "long since been enshrined as a household deity."[13]
The younger Faulkner was greatly influenced by the history of his family and the region in which he lived. Mississippi marked his sense of humor, his sense of the tragic position of "black and white" Americans, his characterization of Southern characters, and his timeless themes, including fiercely intelligent people who are dwelling behind the façades of good ol' boys and simpletons.[citation needed]
As a schoolchild, Faulkner had success early on. He excelled in the first grade, skipped the second, and did well through the third and fourth grades. However, beginning somewhere in the fourth and fifth grades of his schooling, Falkner became a much quieter and more withdrawn child. He occasionally played hooky and became somewhat indifferent with regard to his schoolwork, instead, he took an interest in studying the history of Mississippi on his own time, beginning in the seventh grade. The decline of his performance in school continued, and Falkner wound up repeating the eleventh and twelfth grades, never graduating from high school.[10]
As a teenager in Oxford, Faulkner dated Estelle Oldham (1897–1972), the popular daughter of Major Lemuel and Lida Oldham, and he also believed that he would marry her.[14] However, Estelle dated other boys during their romance, and in 1918 one of them, Cornell Franklin, proposed marriage to her before Faulkner did. Estelle's parents insisted that she marry Cornell, because he was an Ole Miss law graduate, because he had recently been commissioned as a major in the Hawaiian Territorial Forces, and because he also came from a respectable family of whom they were old friends.[15] Estelle's marriage to Franklin fell apart ten years later, and they divorced in April 1929.[16]
Trip to the North and early writings[edit]
Cadet Faulkner in Toronto, 1918
When he was 17, Faulkner met Phil Stone, who became an important early influence on his writing. Stone was four years his senior and came from one of Oxford's older families; he was passionate about literature and had bachelor's degrees from Yale and the University of Mississippi. Stone read and was impressed by some of Faulkner's early poetry, becoming one of the first to recognize and encourage Faulkner's talent. Stone mentored the young Faulkner, introducing him to the works of writers such as James Joyce, who influenced Faulkner's own writing. In his early 20s, Faulkner gave poems and short stories he had written to Stone in hopes of their being published. Stone sent these to publishers, but they were uniformly rejected.[17] In spring 1918, Faulkner traveled to live with Stone at Yale, his first trip north.[18]
Although he initially planned to join the British Army in hopes of being commissioned as an officer,[19] Faulkner joined the Canadian RAF with a forged letter of reference and left Yale to receive training in Toronto.[20] Accounts of Faulkner being rejected from the United States Army Air Service due to his short stature, despite wide publication, are false.[21] Despite his claims, records indicate that Faulkner was never actually a member of the British Royal Flying Corps and never saw active service during the First World War.[22] Despite claiming so in his letters, Faulkner did not receive cockpit training or even fly.[23] Faulkner returned to Oxford in December 1918, where he told acquaintances false war-stories and even faked a war wound.[24]
In 1918, Faulkner's surname changed from "Falkner" to "Faulkner". According to one story, a careless typesetter made an error. When the misprint appeared on the title page of his first book, Faulkner was asked whether he wanted the change. He supposedly replied, "Either way suits me."[25]
In adolescence, Faulkner began writing poetry almost exclusively. He did not write his first novel until 1925. His literary influences are deep and wide. He once stated that he modeled his early writing on the Romantic era in late 18th- and early 19th-century England.[5] He attended the University of Mississippi ("Ole Miss") in Oxford, enrolling in 1919, going three semesters before dropping out in November 1920.[26] Faulkner joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, and pursued his dream to become a writer.[citation needed]
William was able to attend classes at the university because his father had a job there as a business manager. He skipped classes often and received a "D" grade in English. However, some of his poems were published in campus publications.[17][27]
In 1922, his poem "Portrait" was published in the New Orleans literary magazine Double Dealer. The magazine published his "New Orleans" short story collection three years later.[28]
New Orleans and early novels[edit]
During part of his time in New Orleans, Faulkner lived in a house in the French Quarter (pictured center yellow).
Faulkner spent the first half of 1925 in New Orleans, Louisiana, where many bohemian artists and writers lived, specifically in the French Quarter where Faulkner lived beginning in March.[29] During his time in New Orleans, Faulkner's focus drifted from poetry to prose and his literary style made a marked transition from Victorian to modernist.[30] The Times-Picayune published several of his short works of prose.[31] After being directly influenced by Sherwood Anderson, he made his first attempt at fiction writing. Anderson assisted in the publication of Soldiers' Pay and Mosquitoes, Faulkner's second novel, set in New Orleans, by recommending them to his publisher.[32] The miniature house at 624 Pirate's Alley, just around the corner from St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans, is now the site of Faulkner House Books, where it also serves as the headquarters of the Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society.[33]
Also in New Orleans, Faulkner wrote his first novel, Soldiers' Pay.[5] A Soldier's Pay and his other early works were written in a style similar to contemporaries Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, at times nearly exactly appropriating phrases.[34]
During the summer of 1927, Faulkner wrote his first novel set in his fictional Yoknapatawpha County, titled Flags in the Dust. This novel drew heavily from the traditions and history of the South, in which Faulkner had been engrossed in his youth. He was extremely proud of the novel upon its completion and he believed it a significant step up from his previous two novels—however, when submitted for publication to Boni & Liveright, it was rejected. Faulkner was devastated by this rejection but he eventually allowed his literary agent, Ben Wasson, to significantly edit the text, and the novel was published in 1929 as Sartoris.[27][32][note 1] The work was notable in that it was his first novel that dealt with the Civil War rather than the contemporary emphasis on World War I and its legacy.[35]
The Sound and the Fury[edit]
The Sound and the Fury (1929)
In autumn 1928, just after his 31st birthday, Faulkner began working on The Sound and the Fury. He started by writing three short stories about a group of children with the last name Compson, but soon began to feel that the characters he had created might be better suited for a full-length novel. Perhaps as a result of disappointment in the initial rejection of Flags in the Dust, Faulkner had now become indifferent to his publishers and wrote this novel in a much more experimental style. In describing the writing process for this work, Faulkner would later say, "One day I seemed to shut the door between me and all publisher's addresses and book lists. I said to myself, 'Now I can write.'"[36] After its completion, Faulkner insisted that Ben Wasson not do any editing or add any punctuation for clarity.[27]
In 1929, Faulkner married Estelle Oldham, with Andrew Kuhn serving as best man at the wedding. Estelle brought with her two children from her previous marriage to Cornell Franklin and Faulkner hoped to support his new family as a writer. Faulkner and Estelle later had a daughter, Jill, in 1933. He began writing As I Lay Dying in 1929 while working night shifts at the University of Mississippi Power House. The novel would be published in 1930.[37]
Beginning in 1930, Faulkner sent some of his short stories to various national magazines. Several of these were published and brought him enough income to buy a house in Oxford for his family, which he named Rowan Oak.[38] He made money on his 1931 novel, Sanctuary, which was widely reviewed and read (but widely disliked for its perceived criticism of the South).[citation needed] With the onset of the Great Depression, Faulkner was not satisfied with his economic situation. With limited royalties from his work, he published short stories in magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post to supplement his income.[39]
Light in August and foray into Hollywood[edit]
Light in August (1932)
By 1932, Faulkner was in need of money. He asked Wasson to sell the serialization rights for his newly completed novel, Light in August, to a magazine for $5,000, but none accepted the offer. Then MGM Studios offered Faulkner work as a screenwriter in Hollywood. Faulkner was not an avid movie goer and had reservations about working in the movie industry. As André Bleikasten comments, he “was in dire need of money and had no idea how to get it…So he went to Hollywood.”[40] It has been noted that authors like Faulkner were not always hired for their writing prowess but "to enhance the prestige of the …writers who hired them."[40] He arrived in Culver City, California, in May 1932. The job would begin a sporadic relationship with moviemaking and with California, which was difficult but he endured in order to earn "a consistent salary that would support his family back home."[41]
His first screenplay was for Today We Live, an adaptation of his short story "Turnabout" which received a mixed response. He then wrote a screen adaptation of Sartoris that was never produced.[39] From 1932 to 1954, Faulkner worked on around 50 films.[42]
As Stefan Solomon observes, Faulkner was highly critical of what he found in Hollywood, and he wrote letters that were “scathing in tone, painting a miserable portrait of a literary artist imprisoned in a cultural Babylon.”[43] Many scholars have brought attention to the dilemma he experienced and that the predicament had caused him serious unhappiness.[44][41][45] In Hollywood he worked with director Howard Hawks, with whom he quickly developed a friendship, as they both enjoyed drinking and hunting. Howard Hawks' brother, William Hawks, became Faulkner's Hollywood agent. Faulkner would continue to find reliable work as a screenwriter from the 1930s to the 1950s.[32][38]
Faulkner had an extramarital affair with Hawks' secretary and script girl, Meta Carpenter,[46] later known as Meta Wilde.[47] The affair was chronicled in her book A Loving Gentleman.[47]
In 1942, Faulkner tried to join the United States Air Force but was rejected. He instead worked on local Civil Defense.[48]
Final years and death[edit]
Faulkner in 1954
When Faulkner visited Stockholm in December 1950 to receive the Nobel Prize, he met Else Jonsson (1912–1996), who was the widow of journalist Thorsten Jonsson (1910–1950). Jonsson was a reporter for Dagens Nyheter from 1943 to 1946, who had interviewed Faulkner in 1946 and introduced his works to Swedish readers. Faulkner and Else had an affair that lasted until the end of 1953. At the banquet where they met in 1950, publisher Tor Bonnier introduced Else as the widow of the man responsible for Faulkner winning the Nobel prize.[49]
Faulkner's Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech on the immortality of the artists, although brief, contained a number of allusions and references to other literary works.[50]
Faulkner served as the first Writer-in-Residence at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville from February to June 1957 and again in 1958.[51][52]
On June 17, 1962, Faulkner suffered a serious injury in a fall from his horse, which led to thrombosis. He suffered a fatal heart attack on July 6, 1962, at the age of 64, at Wright's Sanatorium in Byhalia, Mississippi.[5][11] Faulkner is buried with his family in St. Peter's Cemetery in Oxford, alongside the grave of an unidentified family friend, whose stone is marked only with the initials "E.T."[53]
Writing[edit]
From the early 1920s to the outbreak of World War II, Faulkner published 13 novels and many short stories. This body of work formed the basis of his reputation and earned him the Nobel Prize at age 52. Faulkner's prodigious output include celebrated novels such as The Sound and the Fury (1929), As I Lay Dying (1930), Light in August (1932), and Absalom, Absalom! (1936). He was also a prolific writer of short stories.
Faulkner's first short story collection, These 13 (1931), includes many of his most acclaimed (and most frequently anthologized) stories, including "A Rose for Emily", "Red Leaves", "That Evening Sun", and "Dry September". He set many of his short stories and novels in Yoknapatawpha County—which was based on and nearly geographically identical to Lafayette County (of which his hometown of Oxford, Mississippi, is the county seat). Yoknapatawpha was Faulkner's "postage stamp", and the bulk of work that it represents is widely considered by critics to amount to one of the most monumental fictional creations in the history of literature. Three of his novels, The Hamlet, The Town and The Mansion, known collectively as the Snopes Trilogy, document the town of Jefferson and its environs, as an extended family headed by Flem Snopes insinuates itself into the lives and psyches of the general populace.[54]
His short story "A Rose for Emily" was his first story published in a major magazine, the Forum, but received little attention from the public. After revisions and reissues, it gained popularity and is now considered one of his best.
Faulkner was known for his experimental style with meticulous attention to diction and cadence. In contrast to the minimalist understatement of his contemporary Ernest Hemingway, Faulkner made frequent use of "stream of consciousness" in his writing, and wrote often highly emotional, subtle, cerebral, complex, and sometimes Gothic or grotesque stories of a wide variety of characters including former slaves or descendants of slaves, poor white, agrarian, or working-class Southerners, and Southern aristocrats.
In an interview with The Paris Review in 1956, Faulkner remarked:
Let the writer take up surgery or bricklaying if he is interested in technique. There is no mechanical way to get the writing done, no shortcut. The young writer would be a fool to follow a theory. Teach yourself by your own mistakes; people learn only by error. The good artist believes that nobody is good enough to give him advice. He has supreme vanity. No matter how much he admires the old writer, he wants to beat him.
Another esteemed Southern writer, Flannery O'Connor, stated that "the presence alone of Faulkner in our midst makes a great difference in what the writer can and cannot permit himself to do. Nobody wants his mule and wagon stalled on the same track the Dixie Limited is roaring down".[55]
Faulkner wrote two volumes of poetry which were published in small printings, The Marble Faun (1924), and A Green Bough (1933), and a collection of mystery stories, Knight's Gambit (1949).
Legacy[edit]
Faulkner's home Rowan Oak is now maintained by the University of Mississippi.
Faulkner's work has been examined by many critics from a wide variety of critical perspectives, including his position on slavery in the South and his view that desegregation was not an idea to be forced, arguing desegregation should "go slow" so as not to upend the southern way of life. The essayist and novelist James Baldwin was highly critical of his views around integration.[56]
The New Critics became interested in Faulkner's work, with Cleanth Brooks writing The Yoknapatawpha Country and Michael Millgate writing The Achievement of William Faulkner. Since then, critics have looked at Faulkner's work using other approaches, such as feminist and psychoanalytic methods.[32][57] Faulkner's works have been placed within the literary traditions of modernism and the Southern Renaissance.[58]
According to critic and translator Valerie Miles, Faulkner's influence on Latin American fiction is considerable, with fictional worlds created by Gabriel García Márquez (Macondo) and Juan Carlos Onetti (Santa Maria) being "very much in the vein of" Yoknapatawpha: "Carlos Fuentes's The Death of Artemio Cruz wouldn't exist if not for As I Lay Dying".[59] Fuentes himself cited Faulkner as one of the most important writers to him.[60] Faulkner also had great influence on Mario Vargas Llosa, particularly on the early novels The Time of the Hero, The Green House and Conversation in the Cathedral. Vargas Llosa has claimed that during his student years he learned more from Yoknapatawpha than from classes.[61]
The works of William Faulkner are a clear influence on the French novelist Claude Simon,[62] and the Portuguese novelist António Lobo Antunes.[63]
After his death, Estelle and their daughter, Jill, lived at Rowan Oak until Estelle's death in 1972. The property was sold to the University of Mississippi that same year. The house and furnishings are maintained much as they were in Faulkner's day. Faulkner's scribblings are preserved on the wall, including the day-by-day outline covering a week he wrote on the walls of his small study to help him keep track of the plot twists in his novel, A Fable.[64]
Faulkner's final work, The Reivers, was adapted into a 1969 film starring Steve McQueen.[65]
Some of Faulkner's works have been adapted into films such as James Franco's As I Lay Dying (2013). They have received a polarized response, with many critics contending that Faulkner's works are "unfilmable".[66]
Awards[edit]
Faulkner was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature for "his powerful and artistically unique contribution to the modern American novel".[67] It was awarded at the following year's banquet along with the 1950 Prize to Bertrand Russell.[68] Faulkner detested the fame and glory that resulted from his recognition. His aversion was so great that his 17-year-old daughter learned of the Nobel Prize only when she was called to the principal's office during the school day.[69]
He donated part of his Nobel money "to establish a fund to support and encourage new fiction writers", eventually resulting in the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction, and donated another part to a local Oxford bank, establishing a scholarship fund to help educate African-American teachers at Rust College in nearby Holly Springs, Mississippi. The government of France made Faulkner a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1951.
Faulkner was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for what are considered "minor" novels: his 1954 novel A Fable, which took the Pulitzer in 1955, and the 1962 novel, The Reivers, which was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer in 1963.[3] (The award for A Fable was a controversial political choice. The jury had selected Milton Lott's The Last Hunt for the prize, but Pulitzer Prize Administrator Professor John Hohenberg convinced the Pulitzer board that Faulkner was long overdue for the award, despite A Fable being a lesser work of his, and the board overrode the jury's selection, much to the disgust of its members.)[70] He also won the U.S. National Book Award twice, for Collected Stories in 1951[71] and A Fable in 1955.[72] In 1946 he was one of three finalists for the first Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine Award and placed second to Rhea Galati.[73]
The United States Postal Service issued a 22-cent postage stamp in his honor on August 3, 1987.[74] Faulkner had once served as Postmaster at the University of Mississippi, and in his letter of resignation in 1923 wrote:
As long as I live under the capitalistic system, I expect to have my life influenced by the demands of moneyed people. But I will be damned if I propose to be at the beck and call of every itinerant scoundrel who has two cents to invest in a postage stamp. This, sir, is my resignation.[75]
On October 10, 2019, a Mississippi Writers Trail historical marker was installed at Rowan Oak in Oxford, Mississippi honoring the contributions of William Faulkner to the American literary landscape.[76]
Collections[edit]
The manuscripts of most of Faulkner's works, correspondence, personal papers, and over 300 books from his working library reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia, where he spent much of his time in his final years. The library also houses some of the writer's personal effects and the papers of major Faulkner associates and scholars, such as his biographer Joseph Blotner, bibliographer Linton Massey, and Random House editor Albert Erskine.
Southeast Missouri State University, where the Center for Faulkner Studies is located, also owns a generous collection of Faulkner materials, including first editions, manuscripts, letters, photographs, artwork, and many materials pertaining to Faulkner's time in Hollywood. The university possesses many personal files and letters kept by Joseph Blotner, along with books and letters that once belonged to Malcolm Cowley. The university achieved the collection due to a generous donation by Louis Daniel Brodsky, a collector of Faulkner materials, in 1989.
Further significant Faulkner materials reside at the University of Mississippi, the Harry Ransom Center, and the New York Public Library.
The Random House records at Columbia University also include letters by and to Faulkner.[77][78]
In 1966, the United States Military Academy dedicated a William Faulkner Room in its library.[48]
Critical reception[edit]
Faulkner's contemporary critical reception was mixed, with The New York Times noting that many critics regarded his work as "raw slabs of pseudorealism that had relatively little merit as serious writing".[6]
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked his 1929 novel The Sound and the Fury sixth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century; also on the list were As I Lay Dying (1930) and Light in August (1932). Absalom, Absalom! (1936) appears on similar lists.[79][80]
Selected list of works[edit]
Main article: William Faulkner bibliography
The Sound and the Fury (1929)
As I Lay Dying (1930)
Light in August (1932)
Absalom, Absalom! (1936)
The Reivers (1962)
Filmography[edit]
Flesh (1932)
Today We Live (1933)
The Story of Temple Drake (1933)
Submarine Patrol (1938)
Air Force (1943)
To Have and Have Not (1944)
The Big Sleep (1946)
Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ The original version was issued as Flags in the Dust in 1973.
Citations and references[edit]
^ "Faulkner, William". Lexico US Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
^ "Faulkner". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ a b "Fiction" Archived May 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Past winners & finalists by category. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
^ Minter (1980), p. 1.
^ a b c d e MWP: William Faulkner (1897–1962) Archived November 1, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, OleMiss.edu; accessed September 26, 2017.
^ a b "Faulkner's Home, Family and Heritage Were Genesis of Yoknapatawpha County". The New York Times. July 7, 1962. Archived from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved June 17, 2021.
^ "Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad". American-Rails.com. Archived from the original on March 29, 2019. Retrieved March 29, 2019.
^ Minter (1980), p. 7.
^ Minter (1980), p. 8.
^ a b c d Minter, David L. William Faulkner, His Life and Work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980; ISBN 0-8018-2347-1
^ a b William Faulkner on Nobelprize.org
^ Minter (1980), p. 8.
^ Coughlan, pg. 38
^ Parini (2004), pp. 22–29.
^ Parini (2004), pp. 36–37.
^ Padgett, John (November 11, 2008). "Mississippi Writers' Page: William Faulkner". The University of Mississippi. Archived from the original on May 12, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ a b Coughlan, Robert. The Private World of William Faulkner, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1953.
^ Zeitlin (2016), p. 15.
^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 15—17.
^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 17, 20.
^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 17—18.
^ Watson, James G. (2002). William Faulkner: Self-Presentation and Performance. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-79151-0.
^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 24—25.
^ Zeitlin (2016), pp. 26–27.
^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-86576-008-X
^ "University of Mississippi: William Faulkner". Olemiss.edu. Archived from the original on September 22, 2010. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
^ a b c Porter, Carolyn. William Faulkner Archived December 2, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 0-19-531049-7
^ Koch (2007), p. 57.
^ Koch (2007), pp. 55—56.
^ Koch (2007), pp. 56, 58.
^ Koch (2007), pp. 58.
^ a b c d Hannon, Charles. "Faulkner, William". The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature. Jay Parini (2004), Oxford University Press, Inc. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.
^ "Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society Featuring Words & Music". Wordsandmusic.org. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
^ McKay (2009), p. 119—121.
^ McKay (2009), p. 119.
^ Porter, Carolyn. William Faulkner Archived December 2, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 0-19-531049-7, pg. 37
^ Parini (2004), p. 142.
^ a b Williamson, Joel. William Faulkner and Southern History Archived March 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; ISBN 0-19-510129-4.
^ a b Bartunek (2017), p. 98.
^ a b Bleikasten (2017), p. 218.
^ a b Solomon, Stefan (2017). William Faulkner in Hollywood: Screenwriting for the Studios. Athens: University of Georgia. p. 1. ISBN 9780820351148. Archived from the original on May 29, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
^ Bartunek (2017), p. 100.
^ Solomon, Stefan (2017). William Faulkner in Hollywood: Screenwriting for the Studios. Athens: University of Georgia. p. 1. ISBN 9780820351148. Archived from the original on May 29, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
^ Bleikasten (2017), pp. 215–220.
^ Leitch, Thomas (2016). "Lights! camera! author! authorship as Hollywood performance". Journal of Screenwriting. 7 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1386/josc.7.1.113_1.
^ Parini (2004), pp. 198–99.
^ a b "Obituary: Meta Wilde, 86, Faulkner's Lover". The New York Times. October 21, 1994. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 23, 2016.
^ a b Capps (1966), p. 3.
^ "En kärlekshistoria i Nobelprisklass", Dagens Nyheter (in Swedish), Sweden, January 9, 2010
^ Rife (1983), pp. 151—152.
^ Ringle, Ken (September 25, 1997). "Faulkner, Between the Lines". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 18, 2021.
^ Blotner, J. and Frederick L. Gwynn, (eds.) (1959) Faulkner in the University: Conferences at the University of Virginia, 1957–1958.
^ Jennifer Ciotta. "Touring William Faulkner's Oxford, Mississippi". Literarytraveler.com. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
^ Charlotte Renner, Talking and Writing in Faulkner's Snopes Trilogy, ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLE, The Southern Literary Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, Fall 1982.
^ Levinger, Larry. "The Prophet Faulkner." Atlantic Monthly 285 (2000): 76.
^ Cep, Casey (November 23, 2020). "William Faulkner's Demons". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on January 22, 2021. Retrieved February 12, 2021.
^ Wagner-Martin, Linda. William Faulkner: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-87013-612-7.
^ Abadie, Ann J. and Doreen Fowler. Faulkner and the Southern Renaissance Archived March 6, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1982 ISBN 1-60473-201-6.
^ Kan, Elianna (April 9, 2015). "The Forest of Letters: An Interview with Valerie Miles". The Paris Review. Archived from the original on April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
^ The Latin Master The Guardian 5 May 2001
^ "The masters who influenced the Latin American Boom: Vargas Llosa and García Márquez took cues from Faulkner". El Pais. November 21, 2012.
^ Duncan, Alistair B. Claude Simon and William Faulkner Forum for Modern Language Studies, Volume IX, Issue 3, July 1973, Pages 235–252
^ Bucaioni, Marco A Huge Debt to 20th Century Modernism? António Lobo Antunes’s Prose Style and his Models, Repositório da Universidade de Lisboa, 2019, p.477-497
^ Block, Melissa (February 13, 2017). "William Faulkner's Home Illustrates His Impact On The South". NPR.org. Archived from the original on August 11, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
^ Ebert, Roger (December 29, 1969). "The Reivers". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved July 2, 2021.
^ Bartunek (2017), p. 97.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1949". Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved July 25, 2009.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1949: Documentary". Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved July 25, 2009.
^ Gordon, Debra. "Faulkner, William". In Bloom, Harold (ed.) William Faulkner, Bloom's BioCritiques. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishing, 2002 ISBN 0-7910-6378-X
^ Hohenberg, John. John Hohenberg: The Pursuit of Excellence, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, 1995, pp. 162-163
^ "National Book Awards – 1951" Archived October 28, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-31. (With essays by Neil Baldwin and Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 50- and 60-year anniversary publications.)
^ "National Book Awards – 1955" Archived April 22, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. National Book Foundation. Retrieved 2012-03-31. (With acceptance speech by Faulkner and essays by Neil Baldwin and Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 50- and 60-year anniversary publications.)
^ Jeremiah Rickert. "Genre Fiction". Oregon Literary Review. 2 (2). Archived from the original on February 21, 2008.
^ Scott catalogue #2350.
^ "William Faulkner Quits His Post Office Job in Splendid Fashion with a 1924 Resignation Letter". Openculture. September 30, 2012. Archived from the original on March 25, 2015. Retrieved February 5, 2014.
^ Friday, Jake Thompson Email the author Published 1:00 pm; October 11; 2019 (October 11, 2019). "William Faulkner marker added to Mississippi Writers Trail". The Oxford Eagle. Archived from the original on June 17, 2020. Retrieved June 16, 2020. CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Random House records, 1925-1999". Archived from the original on December 29, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
^ Jaillant (2014)
^ "100 Best Novels". The Modern Library. Archived from the original on February 7, 2010. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
^ Sherman, Shane. "The Greatest Books of All time". The Greatest Books. p. 1. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
Works cited[edit]
Bartunek, C. J. (Summer 2017). "The Wasteland Revisited: William Faulkner's First Year in Hollywood". South Atlantic Review. 82 (2): 97–116. JSTOR 90013647.
Capps, Jack L. (Spring 1966). "West Point's William Faulkner Room". The Georgia Review. 20 (1): 3–8. JSTOR 41396230.
William Faulkner: Novels 1930–1935 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, ed.) (Library of America, 1985) ISBN 978-0-940450-26-4
William Faulkner: Novels 1936–1940 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 1990) ISBN 978-0-940450-55-4
William Faulkner: Novels 1942–1954 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 1994) ISBN 978-0-940450-85-1
William Faulkner: Novels 1957–1962 (Noel Polk, ed., with notes by Joseph Blotner) (Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-69-7
William Faulkner: Novels 1926–1929 (Joseph Blotner and Noel Polk, eds.) (Library of America, 2006) ISBN 978-1-931082-89-1
The Portable Faulkner, ed. Malcolm Cowley ( Viking Press, 1946). ISBN 978-0-14-243728-5
Blotner, Joseph. Faulkner: A Biography. New York: Random House, 1974. 2 vols.
Blotner, Joseph. Faulkner: A Biography. New York: Random House, 1984.
Fowler, Doreen, Abadie, Ann. Faulkner and Popular Culture: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1990 ISBN 0-87805-434-0, ISBN 978-0-87805-434-3
Jaillant, Lise. "'I'm Afraid I've Got Involved With a Nut': New Faulkner Letters." Southern Literary Journal 47.1 (2014): 98–114. Archived May 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Kerr, Elizabeth Margaret, and Kerr, Michael M. William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha: A Kind of Keystone in the Universe. Fordham Univ Press, 1985 ISBN 0-8232-1135-5, ISBN 978-0-8232-1135-7
Koch, Benjamin (Winter 2007). "The French Quarter Apprentice: William Faulkner's Modernist Evolution". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 48 (1): 55–68. JSTOR 4234243.
Liénard-Yeterian, Marie. 'Faulkner et le cinéma', Paris: Michel Houdiard Editeur, 2010.ISBN 978-2-35692-037-9
Minter, David L. (1980). William Faulkner, his life and work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
McKay, David (Fall 2009). "Faulkner's First War: Conflict, Mimesis, and the Resonance of Defeat". South Central Review. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 26 (3): 119–130. doi:10.1353/scr.0.0062. JSTOR 40645990. S2CID 144583260.
Sensibar, Judith L. The Origins of Faulkner's Art. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. ISBN 0-292-79020-1
Sensibar, Judith L. Faulkner and Love: The Women Who Shaped His Art, A Biography. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-16568-5
Sensibar, Judith L. Vision in Spring. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984. ISBN 0-292-78712-X.
Parini, Jay (2004). One Matchless Time: A Life of William Faulkner. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 22–29. ISBN 0-06-621072-0.
Rosella Mamoli Zorzi (2000). William Faulkner in Venice : proceedings of the International Conference Language, Stylistics, Translations. Venice: Marsilio. p. 347. ISBN 9788831776264. OCLC 634327206 – via references.
Rife, David (March 1983). "Rex Stout and William Faulkner's Nobel Prize Speech". Journal of Modern Literature. Indiana University Press. 10 (1): 151–152. JSTOR 3831202.
Zeitlin, Michael (Spring 2016). "Faulkner and the Royal Air Force Canada, 1918". The Faulkner Journal. Johns Hopkins University. 30 (1): 15–38. doi:10.1353/fau.2016.0009. JSTOR 44578811. S2CID 165335050.
Bleikasten, André (2017). William Faulkner: A Life through Novels. Bloomington: Indiana University. p. 218. ISBN 9780253023322. Retrieved February 13, 2020.
External links[edit]
William Faulkner at IMDb
v
t
e
William Faulkner
Bibliography
Novels
Soldiers' Pay (1926)
Mosquitoes (1927)
Sartoris / Flags in the Dust (1929 / 1973)
The Sound and the Fury (1929)
As I Lay Dying (1930)
Sanctuary (1931)
Light in August (1932)
Pylon (1935)
Absalom, Absalom! (1936)
The Unvanquished (1938)
If I Forget Thee, Jerusalem (1939)
The Hamlet (1940)
Go Down, Moses (1942)
Intruder in the Dust (1948)
Requiem for a Nun (1951)
A Fable (1954)
The Town (1957)
The Mansion (1959)
The Reivers (1962)
Short story
collections
These 13 (1931)
Knight's Gambit (1949)
Collected Stories (1950)
Short stories
"Landing in Luck" (1919)
"A Rose for Emily" (1930)
"Red Leaves" (1930)
"Dry September" (1931)
"Spotted Horses" (1931)
"That Evening Sun" (1931)
"Mountain Victory" (1932)
"Barn Burning" (1939)
"The Tall Men" (1941)
"Shingles for the Lord" (1943)
Screenplays
Flesh (1932)
Today We Live (1933)
Submarine Patrol (1938)
To Have and Have Not (1944)
The Big Sleep (1945)
Children's books
The Wishing Tree (1927)
Related
William Clark Falkner (great-grandfather)
Rowan Oak home
Papers and manuscripts
William Faulkner Foundation
Yoknapatawpha County
Compson family
Louis Grenier
Ikkemotubbe
Gavin Stevens
Thomas Sutpen
Snopes trilogy
Southern Renaissance
Faux Faulkner contest
PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction
v
t
e
Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature
1901–1925
1901: Sully Prudhomme
1902: Theodor Mommsen
1903: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson
1904: Frédéric Mistral / José Echegaray
1905: Henryk Sienkiewicz
1906: Giosuè Carducci
1907: Rudyard Kipling
1908: Rudolf Eucken
1909: Selma Lagerlöf
1910: Paul Heyse
1911: Maurice Maeterlinck
1912: Gerhart Hauptmann
1913: Rabindranath Tagore
1914
1915: Romain Rolland
1916: Verner von Heidenstam
1917: Karl Gjellerup / Henrik Pontoppidan
1918
1919: Carl Spitteler
1920: Knut Hamsun
1921: Anatole France
1922: Jacinto Benavente
1923: W. B. Yeats
1924: Władysław Reymont
1925: George Bernard Shaw
1926–1950
1926: Grazia Deledda
1927: Henri Bergson
1928: Sigrid Undset
1929: Thomas Mann
1930: Sinclair Lewis
1931: Erik Axel Karlfeldt
1932: John Galsworthy
1933: Ivan Bunin
1934: Luigi Pirandello
1935
1936: Eugene O'Neill
1937: Roger Martin du Gard
1938: Pearl S. Buck
1939: Frans Eemil Sillanpää
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944: Johannes V. Jensen
1945: Gabriela Mistral
1946: Hermann Hesse
1947: André Gide
1948: T. S. Eliot
1949: William Faulkner
1950: Bertrand Russell
1951–1975
1951: Pär Lagerkvist
1952: François Mauriac
1953: Winston Churchill
1954: Ernest Hemingway
1955: Halldór Laxness
1956: Juan Ramón Jiménez
1957: Albert Camus
1958: Boris Pasternak
1959: Salvatore Quasimodo
1960: Saint-John Perse
1961: Ivo Andrić
1962: John Steinbeck
1963: Giorgos Seferis
1964: Jean-Paul Sartre (declined award)
1965: Mikhail Sholokhov
1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon / Nelly Sachs
1967: Miguel Ángel Asturias
1968: Yasunari Kawabata
1969: Samuel Beckett
1970: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
1971: Pablo Neruda
1972: Heinrich Böll
1973: Patrick White
1974: Eyvind Johnson / Harry Martinson
1975: Eugenio Montale
1976–2000
1976: Saul Bellow
1977: Vicente Aleixandre
1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer
1979: Odysseas Elytis
1980: Czesław Miłosz
1981: Elias Canetti
1982: Gabriel García Márquez
1983: William Golding
1984: Jaroslav Seifert
1985: Claude Simon
1986: Wole Soyinka
1987: Joseph Brodsky
1988: Naguib Mahfouz
1989: Camilo José Cela
1990: Octavio Paz
1991: Nadine Gordimer
1992: Derek Walcott
1993: Toni Morrison
1994: Kenzaburō Ōe
1995: Seamus Heaney
1996: Wisława Szymborska
1997: Dario Fo
1998: José Saramago
1999: Günter Grass
2000: Gao Xingjian
2001–present
2001: V. S. Naipaul
2002: Imre Kertész
2003: J. M. Coetzee
2004: Elfriede Jelinek
2005: Harold Pinter
2006: Orhan Pamuk
2007: Doris Lessing
2008: J. M. G. Le Clézio
2009: Herta Müller
2010: Mario Vargas Llosa
2011: Tomas Tranströmer
2012: Mo Yan
2013: Alice Munro
2014: Patrick Modiano
2015: Svetlana Alexievich
2016: Bob Dylan
2017: Kazuo Ishiguro
2018: Olga Tokarczuk
2019: Peter Handke
2020: Louise Glück
v
t
e
1949 Nobel Prize laureates
Chemistry
William Giauque (United States)
Literature
William Faulkner (United States)
Peace
John Boyd Orr (Great Britain)
Physics
Hideki Yukawa (Japan)
Physiology or Medicine
Walter Rudolf Hess (Switzerland)
António Egas Moniz (Portugal)
Nobel Prize recipients
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
v
t
e
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
1918–1925
His Family by Ernest Poole (1918)
The Magnificent Ambersons by Booth Tarkington (1919)
The Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton (1921)
Alice Adams by Booth Tarkington (1922)
One of Ours by Willa Cather (1923)
The Able McLaughlins by Margaret Wilson (1924)
So Big by Edna Ferber (1925)
1926–1950
Arrowsmith by Sinclair Lewis (declined) (1926)
Early Autumn by Louis Bromfield (1927)
The Bridge of San Luis Rey by Thornton Wilder (1928)
Scarlet Sister Mary by Julia Peterkin (1929)
Laughing Boy by Oliver La Farge (1930)
Years of Grace by Margaret Ayer Barnes (1931)
The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck (1932)
The Store by Thomas Sigismund Stribling (1933)
Lamb in His Bosom by Caroline Pafford Miller (1934)
Now in November by Josephine Winslow Johnson (1935)
Honey in the Horn by Harold L. Davis (1936)
Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell (1937)
The Late George Apley by John Phillips Marquand (1938)
The Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings (1939)
The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck (1940)
In This Our Life by Ellen Glasgow (1942)
Dragon's Teeth by Upton Sinclair (1943)
Journey in the Dark by Martin Flavin (1944)
A Bell for Adano by John Hersey (1945)
All the King's Men by Robert Penn Warren (1947)
Tales of the South Pacific by James A. Michener (1948)
Guard of Honor by James Gould Cozzens (1949)
The Way West by A. B. Guthrie Jr. (1950)
1951–1975
The Town by Conrad Richter (1951)
The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk (1952)
The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway (1953)
A Fable by William Faulkner (1955)
Andersonville by MacKinlay Kantor (1956)
A Death in the Family by James Agee (1958)
The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters by Robert Lewis Taylor (1959)
Advise and Consent by Allen Drury (1960)
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee (1961)
The Edge of Sadness by Edwin O'Connor (1962)
The Reivers by William Faulkner (1963)
The Keepers of the House by Shirley Ann Grau (1965)
The Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter by Katherine Anne Porter (1966)
The Fixer by Bernard Malamud (1967)
The Confessions of Nat Turner by William Styron (1968)
House Made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday (1969)
The Collected Stories of Jean Stafford by Jean Stafford (1970)
Angle of Repose by Wallace Stegner (1972)
The Optimist's Daughter by Eudora Welty (1973)
No award given (1974)
The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara (1975)
1976–2000
Humboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow (1976)
No award given (1977)
Elbow Room by James Alan McPherson (1978)
The Stories of John Cheever by John Cheever (1979)
The Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer (1980)
A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole (1981)
Rabbit Is Rich by John Updike (1982)
The Color Purple by Alice Walker (1983)
Ironweed by William Kennedy (1984)
Foreign Affairs by Alison Lurie (1985)
Lonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry (1986)
A Summons to Memphis by Peter Taylor (1987)
Beloved by Toni Morrison (1988)
Breathing Lessons by Anne Tyler (1989)
The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos (1990)
Rabbit at Rest by John Updike (1991)
A Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley (1992)
A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler (1993)
The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx (1994)
The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields (1995)
Independence Day by Richard Ford (1996)
Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser (1997)
American Pastoral by Philip Roth (1998)
The Hours by Michael Cunningham (1999)
Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (2000)
2001–present
The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon (2001)
Empire Falls by Richard Russo (2002)
Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides (2003)
The Known World by Edward P. Jones (2004)
Gilead by Marilynne Robinson (2005)
March by Geraldine Brooks (2006)
The Road by Cormac McCarthy (2007)
The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz (2008)
Olive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout (2009)
Tinkers by Paul Harding (2010)
A Visit from the Goon Squad by Jennifer Egan (2011)
No award given (2012)
The Orphan Master's Son by Adam Johnson (2013)
The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt (2014)
All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr (2015)
The Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen (2016)
The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead (2017)
Less by Andrew Sean Greer (2018)
The Overstory by Richard Powers (2019)
The Nickel Boys by Colson Whitehead (2020)
The Night Watchman by Louise Erdrich (2021)
v
t
e
National Book Award for Fiction (1950–1974)
The Man with the Golden Arm by Nelson Algren (1950)
Collected Stories of William Faulkner by William Faulkner (1951)
From Here to Eternity by James Jones (1952)
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison (1953)
The Adventures of Augie March by Saul Bellow (1954)
A Fable by William Faulkner (1955)
Ten North Frederick by John O'Hara (1956)
The Field of Vision by Wright Morris (1957)
The Wapshot Chronicle by John Cheever (1958)
The Magic Barrel by Bernard Malamud (1959)
Goodbye, Columbus by Philip Roth (1960)
The Waters of Kronos by Conrad Richter (1961)
The Moviegoer by Walker Percy (1962)
Morte d'Urban by J. F. Powers (1963)
The Centaur by John Updike (1964)
Herzog by Saul Bellow (1965)
The Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter by Katherine Anne Porter (1966)
The Fixer by Bernard Malamud (1967)
The Eighth Day by Thornton Wilder (1968)
Steps by Jerzy Kosiński (1969)
them by Joyce Carol Oates (1970)
Mr. Sammler's Planet by Saul Bellow (1971)
The Complete Stories by Flannery O'Connor (1972)
Chimera by John Barth (1973)
Augustus by John Williams (1973)
Gravity's Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon (1974)
A Crown of Feathers and Other Stories by Isaac Bashevis Singer (1974)
Complete list
(1950–1974)
(1975–1999)
(2000–2024)
Authority control
General
Integrated Authority File (Germany)
ISNI
1
VIAF
1
WorldCat
National libraries
Norway
Spain
France (data)
Catalonia
Italy
United States
Latvia
Japan
Czech Republic
Australia
Greece
Korea
Netherlands
Poland
Sweden
Vatican
Art research institutes
Artist Names (Getty)
Scientific databases
CiNii (Japan)
Other
Faceted Application of Subject Terminology
National Archives (US)
Social Networks and Archival Context
SUDOC (France)
1
Trove (Australia)
1
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Faulkner&oldid=1044056739"
Categories:
William Faulkner
1897 births
1962 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American poets
20th-century American short story writers
People from New Albany, Mississippi
Novelists from Mississippi
Modernist writers
American Nobel laureates
American male novelists
American male screenwriters
Mississippi postmasters
American erotica writers
National Book Award winners
Nobel laureates in Literature
People from Oxford, Mississippi
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winners
Southern United States in fiction
University of Virginia alumni
American male short story writers
Writers of American Southern literature
People from Ripley, Mississippi
Deaths by horse-riding accident in the United States
Screenwriters from Mississippi
20th-century American male writers
Accidental deaths in Mississippi
British Army personnel of World War I
20th-century American screenwriters
Lost Generation writers
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024
CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)
CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list
Articles with short description
Short description matches Wikidata
Use mdy dates from December 2015
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021
Articles with GND identifiers
Articles with ISNI identifiers
Articles with VIAF identifiers
Articles with BIBSYS identifiers
Articles with BNE identifiers
Articles with BNF identifiers
Articles with CANTIC identifiers
Articles with ICCU identifiers
Articles with LCCN identifiers
Articles with LNB identifiers
Articles with NDL identifiers
Articles with NKC identifiers
Articles with NLA identifiers
Articles with NLG identifiers
Articles with NLK identifiers
Articles with NTA identifiers
Articles with PLWABN identifiers
Articles with SELIBR identifiers
Articles with VcBA identifiers
Articles with ULAN identifiers
Articles with CINII identifiers
Articles with FAST identifiers
Articles with NARA identifiers
Articles with SNAC-ID identifiers
Articles with SUDOC identifiers
Articles with Trove identifiers
Articles with WORLDCATID identifiers
AC with 27 elements
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Current events
Random article
About Wikipedia
Contact us
Donate
Contribute
Help
Learn to edit
Community portal
Recent changes
Upload file
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Cite this page
Wikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Wikisource
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Aymar aru
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kotava
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk bokmål
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
پښتو
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
吴语
Yorùbá
粵語
Zazaki
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 13 September 2021, at 10:07 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.


Adopt-a-user Home • Talk || Adoptee's Area • Resources || Adopter's Area • Resources • List of Adopters || Teahouse || Live Help Chat (IRC)
Shortcuts
WP:AAU
WP:ADOPT
WP:ADOPTION
WP:WIKIADOPT
The Adopt-a-user program is designed to help new and inexperienced users by pairing them with more experienced Wikipedians. These editors (referred to as adopters or mentors) will "adopt" newer users, guiding them along the way as they learn about Wikipedia and its various aspects.
The project aims to inform new users about the ins and outs of Wikipedia and steer them away from making less-than-constructive edits or misplaced test edits. Well over a thousand users have been involved in the program at one time or another.
So, if you're new or inexperienced and would like to:
Ask questions about editing, contributing to Wikipedia and creating your first article
Learn to navigate processes and policies and guidelines
Get help with article creation or image uploads or any other activities on Wikipedia
. . .then an adopter should be able to help you. Adoption lasts as long as the adopter and adoptee want to continue, so you can stop any time if you feel you've learned enough, or you'd like to take a break.
If you are looking to contribute to Wikipedia but do not intend to remain as an active user well after adoption, then this program is not for you. Adoption is for users who intend to be long-term contributors and members of the community, so if you are simply here to create one article, see this page for help and do not request adoption.
Users who don't want adopting – but who do need help with one-off problems – might like to consider whether the Teahouse question forum, the Help desk, or a {{Help me}} request might be better ways to get quick answers.
Participation
Being adopted is easy and fun. Why not select an adopter from the list of adopters and contact them directly to request adoption? If you choose an adopter who shares your interests, they will be more able to assist you while you learn under their tutelage.
View the list of adopters!
Alternatively, you can simply edit your user page, add the following text, {{subst:dated|adoptme}} and then Publish the page. This will put you on a list of potential adoptees and display the following userbox on your page:
This user seeks adoption by an experienced editor. (Users offering adoption)
However, as with many areas of Wikipedia, a pro-active approach is far more likely to get you adopted. Just leaving the adoption request on your userpage could result in a long delay before your request is noticed or answered. For more information, visit the Adoptee's Area and the Adopt-a-user talk page. (If you are interested in becoming an Adopter yourself, please visit the Adopter's Area.)
Is adoption right for you?
Adoption needs a commitment from you! You are expected to stick around, practice and learn to work with others, and demonstrate a willingness to contribute across a broad range of Wikipedia activities. Adoption isn't for getting short-term assistance with a particular problem. There are other help forums for that.
If you're new or inexperienced and would like a single point of contact to:
Guide you through understanding our key policies and 'how to' guidelines
Discuss a range of questions about editing, contributing to Wikipedia and possibly create your first article
Receive guidance on interacting with other editors, article creation, image uploads and a host of other activities on Wikipedia, like help out by preventing-vandalism or doing routine maintenance tasks
...then finding an Adopter could be just the thing for you!
Whilst many adopters take a structured, step-by-step approach to guiding new editors through the various elements of working on Wikipedia, others are more informal. They may prefer to simply steer you through key areas you're having difficulty with, and answer questions when you encounter problems.
Similar Programs
The Teahouse
An area where friendly Wikipedians will answer your questions, 24 hours a day.
Counter-Vandalism Unit Academy
A training program for those editors who want to focus on reverting vandalism
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Adopt-a-user&oldid=1027845304"
Categories:
Wikipedia Adopt-a-user
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Project page
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Current events
Random article
About Wikipedia
Contact us
Donate
Contribute
Help
Learn to edit
Community portal
Recent changes
Upload file
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Dansk
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
فارسی
Français
Galego
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Magyar
Nederlands
Nordfriisk
Norsk bokmål
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Svenska
ไทย
Zeêuws
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 10:08 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.


This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Bilateralism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bilateralism is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism, which is activity by a single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively. When states recognize one another as sovereign states and agree to diplomatic relations, they create a bilateral relationship. States with bilateral ties will exchange diplomatic agents such as ambassadors to facilitate dialogues and cooperations.
Economic agreements, such as free trade agreements (FTA) or foreign direct investment (FDI), signed by two states, are a common example of bilateralism. Since most economic agreements are signed according to the specific characteristics of the contracting countries to give preferential treatment to each other, not a generalized principle but a situational differentiation is needed. Thus through bilateralism, states can obtain more tailored agreements and obligations that only apply to particular contracting states. However, the states will face a trade-off because it is more wasteful in transaction costs than the multilateral strategy. In a bilateral strategy, a new contract has to be negotiated for each participant. So it tends to be preferred when transaction costs are low and the member surplus, which corresponds to “producer surplus” in economic terms, is high. Moreover, this will be effective if an influential state wants control over small states from a liberalism perspective, because building a series of bilateral arrangements with small states can increase a state's influence.[1]
Contents
1 Examples
2 History
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Examples[edit]
Australia and Canada have a bilateral relationship; both have similar governments and share similar values as well as having the same titular head of state. In 1895 the Government of Canada sent John Larke to Sydney to establish a trade commission and in 1935 Canada sent Charles Burchell (Australia's first Canadian High Commissioner) to formalise ties between the two countries.[2] Both nations have been wartime allies, and their trade and economic relations are strong.
India and Nepal have had a bilateral relationship since ancient times even before the birth of the Buddha in 544 BC. In modern times, this traditional relationship has been confirmed by written treaties. The India-Nepal treaty of friendship was signed in July 1950. That provided economically and politically important effects for both countries. In 2011, the two countries signed a new Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement. These bilateral treaties have played a significant role in the evolution of international investment law. Citizens of both countries can move across the border freely without passport or visa, live and work in either country and own property and business in either country. Gurkhas form a part of the Indian Army. Millions of Nepalis have been living in India for long periods of time.[3]
The United States has bilateral relationships with several East Asian countries, particularly South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. The United States formed a bilateral alliance with Japan during the Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan. The U.S. also formed a bilateral alliance with Korea during the 1953 U.S.-South Korea Status of Forces Agreement and one with the Republic of China during the 1954 Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty. Unlike its relationship with European nations which takes multilateral alliances centered in NATO, the U.S. prefers a direct relationship with each of the East Asian countries. Rather than establishing a security alliance or hosting a summit, the U.S. tends to make a direct connection with each nation. From both historical and political perspectives, every country in the East Asian region can be an opponent or a target to any other. Therefore, it is comparatively difficult to construct multilateral alliances, which depend upon mutual reliance. A main U.S. reason for choosing a bilateral treaty was to avoid conflict, as might have been the case with multilateral treaties (e.g. risk of multilateral treaty defects). An example is the "hub and spokes" reference, where the U.S. is the "hub" and the East Asian countries are the "spokes"; they each have a connection with the U.S. but not with each other.[4][5]
There are multiple factors that are unique when discussing why the United States has chosen to form bilateral relations particularly with East Asian countries, in comparison to the multilateral relations, such as NATO. Firstly, the United States had existing and longer relations with countries in Europe. Thus it was easier for the United States to build and form this multilateral bond. Victor Cha states "Acheson argued that NATO was the product of a long, deliberative process, that West European powers had carefully developed their plan for collective defense before asking for U.S. help, and most revealing, that the United States viewed NATO as a mutual collective defense arrangement."[6] Another factor which contributed is the geography of East Asia compared to Europe. Because Europe is "connected", it is better for the security and economy. Whereas in East Asia, states are divided over a large space and is separated by large amounts of water and distance, making it a less admirable condition to form multilateral bonds for the United States. In East Asia, there are also a variety of regimes: communist, authoritarian regimes as well as democratic regimes. In comparison to the states in NATO, who are consisted of democracies, causing a level of difficulty in creating multilateral relations. Another factor is that the states in NATO recognised the same source of threat, which was USSR. This allowed for an agreement amongst these NATO states to form this multilateral relation. However, in the case with East Asia, there was no unified threat. For the ROC (Republic of China, otherwise known as Taiwan), China was seen as the threat. For the ROK (Republic of Korea, otherwise known as South Korea), DPRK (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, otherwise known as North Korea) was the threat. Thus there was a great level of difficulty in the United States forming an alliance with East Asia as the threats were different. Among many of the different explanations behind the United States’ choice of intervening in the bilateral alliances in East Asia, some social historians added that the U.S. decision makers firmly believed that unlike Europe, “inferior” Asians presumably did not possess the level of sophistication and responsibility that was required for the complex organization of the multilateral security arrangements. Christopher Hemmer and Peter J. Katzenstein concluded, “trust [was] absent, religion and domestic value were shared in only few cases, and race invoked as a powerful force separating the U.S. from Asia”.[7]
Victor Cha proposed the Powerplay (theory) in his article “Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliances Systems in Asia”, which explains the reasons behind the United States’ decision in creating a series of bilateral alliances with East Asian countries. Powerplay is commonly used in any political or social situation when one uses its knowledge or information against others in order to gain benefits using situational advantages the one has. According to the powerplay theory, the alliances were created to both contain and constrain potential rogue allies (rogue state) from performing aggressive behavior that would trigger larger military conflict and involvement. The rogue allies (rogue states) include Taiwan's Kai Shek Chiang, who was publicly planning and looking forward to take back mainland China, and Korea's Syngman Rhee, who wanted to unify the Korean peninsula. The United States was also worried that Japan would recover its regional power in Asia. Cha concludes that the postwar United States planners had selected such a type of security architecture as an attempt to prevent aggression by the East Asian pro-west dictators and to increase leverage and states' dependency on the U.S. economy.
The U.S.-Japan alliance was a bilateral security order created with the intention of preventing the expansion of Soviet power and communism in the Asia Pacific. The U.S. provided Japan, and the other Asia Pacific countries, with the offer of security protection and access to American markets, technology, and supplies in exchange for providing diplomatic, economic, and logistical support for the U.S., as this, according to John Ikenberry, would lead to the “wider, American-centered anti-Communist postwar order".[8]
The United States also has a history of bilateral agreements with Panama, beginning with the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) which established the United States' right to build a canal and own it and adjacent property across the otherwise-sovereign nation of Panama. This was replaced by The Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal and the Panama Canal Treaty (both signed 1977). A Bilateral Investment Treaty Amendment was signed by the two countries in 2000, and several more limited agreements have been signed between various law-enforcement and financial agencies of the two countries.
History[edit]
There has been a long debate on the merits of bilateralism versus multilateralism. The first rejection of bilateralism came after the First World War when many politicians concluded that the complex pre-war system of bilateral treaties had made war inevitable. This led to the creation of the multilateral League of Nations (which was disbanded in failure after 26 years).
A similar reaction against bilateral trade agreements occurred after the Great Depression, when it was argued that such agreements helped produce a cycle of rising tariffs that deepened the economic downturn. Thus, after the Second World War, the West turned to multilateral agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).[citation needed]
Despite the high profile of modern multilateral systems such as the United Nations and World Trade Organization, most diplomacy is still done at the bilateral level. Bilateralism has a flexibility and ease lacking in most compromise-dependent multilateral systems. In addition, disparities in power, resources, money, armament, or technology are more easily exploitable by the stronger side in bilateral diplomacy, which powerful states might consider as a positive aspect of it, compared to the more consensus-driven multilateral form of diplomacy, where the one state-one vote rule applies.[citation needed]
A 2017 study found that bilateral tax treaties, even if intended to "coordinate policies between countries to avoid double taxation and encourage international investment", had the unintended consequence of allowing "multinationals to engage in treaty shopping, states’ fiscal autonomy is limited, and governments tend to maintain lower tax rates."[9]
See also[edit]
Bilateral trade
Bilateral treaty
List of bilateral free trade agreements
Multilateralism
Multistakeholderism
Unilateralism
References[edit]
^ Thompson, Alexander. "Multilateralism, Bilateralism and Regime Design" (PDF). Department of Political Science Ohio State University. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
^ "Canada country brief - September 2010". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
^ [1] Oxford Journal
^ "BBS Reports, December 2013" (PDF). EAI.or.kr. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
^ Cha, Victor D. (9 January 2010). "Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia". International Security. 34 (3): 158–196. doi:10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158. S2CID 57566528. Retrieved 16 July 2017 – via Project MUSE.
^ Cha, Victor D. (Winter 2009–10). "Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia". International Security. 34 (3): 158–196. doi:10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158. S2CID 57566528.
^ "Why is There No NATO in Asia? Collective Identity, Regionalism, and the Origins of Multilateralism" (PDF). Harvard.edu. Retrieved 16 July 2017. [dead link]
^ [2] Archived 5 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Ikenberry G. John. "American Hegemony and East Asian Order." Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 354-355, September 2004.
^ Arel-Bundock, Vincent (1 April 2017). "The Unintended Consequences of Bilateralism: Treaty Shopping and International Tax Policy". International Organization. 71 (2): 349–371. doi:10.1017/S0020818317000108. ISSN 0020-8183. S2CID 157493354.
External links[edit]
Look up bilateralism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Rise of Bilateralism
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bilateralism&oldid=1040818650"
Categories:
Bilateral relations
International relations theory
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from May 2021
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Articles needing additional references from July 2009
All articles needing additional references
Use dmy dates from May 2015
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Current events
Random article
About Wikipedia
Contact us
Donate
Contribute
Help
Learn to edit
Community portal
Recent changes
Upload file
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Cite this page
Wikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
فارسی
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
עברית
Қазақша
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
日本語
Norsk bokmål
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Русский
Tagalog
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 August 2021, at 21:21 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.


National Steel Co., Boston and Colorado Smelting Co., Fritchle Automobile & Battery Co., Buick Motor Co.
Known for
1908 electric automobile endurance run, long-range electric vehicles, battery and automotive patents
Children
2
Oliver Parker Fritchle (September 15, 1874 – August 1951) was an American chemist, storage battery innovator, and entrepreneur with electric vehicle and wind power generation businesses during the early twentieth century. His initial battery patent was awarded in 1903[1] and by 1904 he had established what was to become the Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company in Denver, Colorado.[2] He was an early adaptor and developer of significant automotive technologies, such as regenerative braking[3] and hybrid drivetrains,[4] that did not reemerge on production vehicles of major car companies until late in the twentieth century.
Fritchle achieved national celebrity for his 1908 Lincoln-to-New York endurance run in one of the first electric automobile models produced by his firm.[5] He covered the 1,800 miles (2,900 km) in a stock Victoria Phaeton achieving as many as 108 miles (174 km) between charges[6] through extremes in weather, terrain, and road conditions; a remarkable feat with an electric vehicle of that day. The trip journal and photographs subsequently published to promote The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric provided unique insight to the state of road and electric power infrastructure within the United States during the early twentieth century.[7]
Contents
1 Early years
2 Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company
3 1908 Lincoln-to-New York electric endurance run
3.1 Challenge and timing
3.2 Roads
3.2.1 Route and log
3.3 Highlights
4 After The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric
5 Patents and papers
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Early years[edit]
Fritchle was born in Mount Hope, Ohio to a family of Ohio natives. His father was a veteran of the Civil War and a merchant in Holmes County. Fritchle attended local public schools followed by five years at Ohio Wesleyan University and two at Ohio State University where he graduated in 1896 with a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.[2]
He worked as a chemical engineer at the National Steel Company for two years after college. During this time he began experimenting with storage batteries with an interest in improving their suitability for vehicle applications. Around 1899 he relocated to Denver, Colorado and became chief chemist for the Henry E. Wood Company, an ore analysis concern. He worked there for two years prior to joining the Boston and Colorado Smelting Company of Argo as their chief chemist and assayer.[2]
Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company[edit]
1912 Fritchle Four-Passenger Tourer
He established the O. P. Fritchle Garage Company in Denver, Colorado shortly after being granted his first battery patent in 1903.[1] The new firm specialized in sales, maintenance, and recharging of electric vehicles, but also represented gasoline powered lines such as Hammer.[8] He began developing and manufacturing better batteries in order to enhance the range, performance, and durability of his customers' vehicles, but found automobile technology the more limiting factor after several years of battery improvements. The Fritchle Automobile & Battery Company was established by 1908 to manufacture vehicles of his own design and by 1917 he was qualified as one of the few automotive engineers in Colorado.[9]
His first design halved the power consumption, nearly doubling the range, relative to competitors' vehicles.[2] One contribution to this advantage was his successful implementation of what was known then as "electric brakes"[3] and more recently as regenerative brakes. The concept of using the motor to recharge the batteries while slowing an electric vehicle was not new even as early as 1908. However, implementing it effectively in automobiles and trucks was still quite tricky with the technology of the period[10] and required development of a proprietary controller.[11]
Fritchle Milostat on a 100-Mile Battery
Fritchle produced a number of practical innovations in addition to his battery and vehicle patents, such as one of the first automobile child seats. The Fritchle Milostat was a clever solution to the problem electric vehicle operators had accurately estimating the driving distance available from their batteries. It was simply a hydrometer calibrated to display the percentage of charge remaining rather than the normal, but difficult to interpret, specific gravity reading.[12]
The Fritchle Automobile products evolved over five years from the carriage-like Phaeton to a broad line of cars and a commercial truck. Models made at various times during more than a decade of production included the Victoria Phaeton, four-passenger coupe, roadster, Stanhope runabout, two-passenger torpedo runabout, four-passenger tourer, a luxury five-passenger brougham,[13] and a one thousand pound commercial truck.[14]
Fritchle took steps to establish a company presence in Washington, D.C. at the end of his 1908 cross-country trip.[5] Additional efforts to expand into the lucrative East Coast market were made in 1912 with the opening of a sales office on Fifth Avenue in New York City[3] and selection of a manufacturing site in Bridgeport, Connecticut[15] as the International Fritchle Company. However, these did not pan out and Fritchle Automobiles remained primarily a small regional manufacturer through the end of production.
1908 Lincoln-to-New York electric endurance run[edit]
Fritchle Victoria Phaeton
Price (circa 1909): $2,000 USD
Class: Electric
Battery: 28 cells, 800 lb (360 kg).
Motor: 10 horsepower
Speeds: Eight, 5 to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h)
Range: 100 miles (160 km) on third speed
Brakes: Hub band and electric
Tires: 34 x 3.5 O.D.
Weight: 2,100 lb (950 kg) with battery
Wheel Base: 80 in. x 50 in.
Seat Width: 44 in.
Top: Full Victoria
Fritchle's initial series of battery and automobile improvements culminated with production of the Victoria Phaeton in 1908, the twentieth anniversary of the electric car in America.[16] His choice of a competitive cross-country endurance run among electric vehicles as a means for promoting the capabilities of his new product was influenced by the positive effect the annual AAA National Reliability Tour, more commonly known as the Glidden Tour, was having on the durability and perceptions of fuel-powered vehicles. Though it had become one of the most prestigious American automobile events, electric vehicles were essentially excluded by the distances of the daily legs which frequently ran well over 100 miles (160 km).
Challenge and timing[edit]
By September 1908 he had issued a general invitation to all manufacturers of electric automobiles to participate in a trip from Denver to New York City with the challenge "to an endurance run between the above named points at a time in the Fall that will be satisfactory and allow the greatest number of entries possible."[7]
The relatively short time for responses, lack of electric service on the western end of the proposed route, and poor timing for a trip across northern states cast some doubt as to whether he was actually expecting challengers. The failure of any competitors to accept became a fact leveraged in his advertising.
Less than sixty days from the September invitation, Fritchle proceeded with the trip on his own. Arrangements for re-charging were made by an associate of his firm, W. P. Pfaff, who usually travelled ahead by rail, though occasionally rode in the car with Fritchle.[5] The starting point was moved to Lincoln, Nebraska due to the unworkable distances between charging facilities that still existed further west. The stock Victoria Phaeton was transported to Lincoln and ready to go by the end of October.
Roads[edit]
Fritchle departed from Lincoln at 7:30 a.m. on 31 October 1908. Many of the early inter-city roads in the Midwest had been established along existing railroad lines. His route generally followed the Burlington from Lincoln to Omaha and the Rock Island from Omaha to Des Moines.
Lost more than once due to poor signs and roads west of Omaha
The Nebraska roads and those in western Iowa were especially brutal. Government road programs had not been implemented yet, so both the roadways and any signage were privately maintained, if maintained at all. It would be another two years before local automobile enthusiasts would adopt the western Iowa segment as the White Pole Road.[17] At the time of Fritchle's trip, the route was poorly marked and the deep mud of the "blue clay" roadways difficult to pass. The county and railroad route maps brought for navigation were inadequate. He became lost on several occasions and at times had to resort to following a compass heading or listening for passing trains in order to reconnect with the proper route. The wrong turns, low speeds required for the road conditions, and the need to stop early due to driver exhaustion put him behind schedule. Differences between odometer readings entered in his log and mapped route distances indicated well over 100 miles (160 km) of wrong turns between Lincoln and Cedar Rapids, Iowa; most of which likely occurred west of Des Moines.
He drove north out of Des Moines to pick up the Northwestern in Nevada, Iowa and followed it into Chicago. Condition of the roads along the Northwestern were much better and there were several stretches where Fritchle was able to make up time by using high speed. In Chicago he purchased 1908 Glidden Tour (AAA) and White Route (Motor Age) books which were used for the eastern part of the trip.[18]
Substantial portions of the route east of Chicago were based upon long established pikes and trails that would later form the Lincoln Highway; the most significant exceptions were a more northern route through Toledo in Ohio, a side trip to his home town of Mount Hope, and more easterly roads out of Pittsburgh. He still managed a few wrong turns due to errors in the guides and in some of the places he chose to deviate from them, though the impact in terms of extra miles was much less significant than it had been in Nebraska and Iowa.
He raised the possibility of differences in roadway design considerations between electric and fuel-powered vehicles on the turnpike east of York, Pennsylvania. He noted that the downhill stops required by placement of all sixteen tollgates in the middle of downgrades significantly reduced the effectiveness of his electric's regenerative braking system.
The press report that he followed the 1908 Glidden Tour route between Pittsburgh and New York[5] was somewhat misleading. Fritchle appeared to retrace the Glidden route in only a few segments of that stretch, mainly in the area of Bedford, Pennsylvania. Close enough for him to emphasize that his electric had been able to traverse roads through the Alleghenys in November that the fuel-powered "Gliddenites" had found difficult to pass in July. He arrived at the Hotel Knickerbocker in Times Square New York at 6:00 p.m. on 28 November 1908.[19]
Route and log[edit]
Route approximated on current roads by Google Maps
Lincoln to Chicago Chicago to Johnstown Johnstown to New York
Leg Date Time Location Route Miles Charge
Notes
1 31-Oct-1908 7:30 a.m. Lincoln, Nebraska 0 Full Departed from E. E. Mockett Auto Co.
Ashland, Nebraska 28 Partial Charged from Dr. W. G. Meredith's X-Ray dynamo during lunch.
10:00 p.m. Omaha, Nebraska 60 Full Charged at R. R. Kimball's Garage.
2 1-Nov-1908 2:30 p.m. Omaha, Nebraska 60 Departure delayed by slow charge.
Weston, Iowa 73 Scared 4 horse team and two broke wagon tongue and ran off.
10:00 p.m. Avoca, Iowa 101 Full Charged with barrel water-rheostat from 240 V circuit.
3 2-Nov-1908 9:00 a.m. Avoca, Iowa 101
1:30 p.m. Atlantic, Iowa 126 Full Stopped early to rest. Used 110 V DC charging circuit at Atlantic Automobile Company.
4 3-Nov-1908 7:00 a.m. Atlantic, Iowa 126
1:00 p.m. Stuart, Iowa 169 Full Used 110 V DC charging circuit from the city electric light plant.
5 4-Nov-1908 7:15 a.m. Stuart, Iowa 169
2:15 p.m. Des Moines, Iowa 208 Full Completed 48 miles (77 km) at less than 7 mph. Charged at Iowa Automobile & Supply Co.
6 5-Nov-1908 9:30 a.m. Des Moines, Iowa 208
Cambridge, Iowa 233
Nevada, Iowa 252 Picked up the Northwestern Road (Transcontinental Automobile Route).
7:00 p.m. Marshalltown, Iowa 283 Full Completed 72 miles (116 km). Charged using 30 A rectifier.
7 6-Nov-1908 Marshalltown, Iowa 283
8:00 p.m. Cedar Rapids, Iowa 355 Full Odometer read 477 miles (768 km) from Lincoln. Charged from 110 V dynamo driven by gas engine.
8 7-Nov-1908 7:00 a.m. Cedar Rapids, Iowa 355
5:00 p.m. DeWitt, Iowa 419 Partial Completed 68 miles (109 km) and recharged during supper. Charged from city power plant with small exciter during supper.
Clinton, Iowa 438 Full Completed another 21 miles (34 km) for a total of 89 for the day. Charged at Clinton Auto Supply Co. using rectifier.
9 8-Nov-1908 11:00 a.m. Clinton, Iowa 438
Dixon, Illinois 487
Franklin Grove, Illinois 497
10:00 p.m. DeKalb, Illinois 533 Full Completed 91 miles (146 km)
10 9-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. DeKalb, Illinois 533
7:00 p.m. Chicago, Illinois 598 Full Completed 68 miles (109 km)
10-Nov-1908 Chicago, Illinois 598 Waited for registered letter
11 11-Nov-1908 4:00 p.m. Chicago, Illinois 598 Purchased 1908 Glidden Route (AAA) and White Route (Motor Age) books
Hobart, Indiana 641 Left front tire punctured by nail on road to Hobart
11:00 p.m. Valparaiso, Indiana 656 Full Charged from 220 V circuit at Home Herald Co.
12 12-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Valparaiso, Indiana 656
LaPorte, Indiana 673
South Bend, Indiana 725
8:00 p.m. Elkhart, Indiana 747 Full Completed 72 miles (116 km).
13 13-Nov-1908 8:00 a.m. Elkhart, Indiana 747
Lunch Kendallville, Indiana 797 Partial Partial charge at Kendallville Power Plant through exciter dynamo during lunch due to heavy sand roadways.
Bryan, Ohio 836 Full
14 14-Nov-1908 Bryan, Ohio 836
Wauseon, Ohio 865
Swanton, Ohio 879
3:00 p.m. Toledo, Ohio 900 Full Completed 66 miles (106 km). Charge at Kirk Brothers Garage.
15 15-Nov-1908 Toledo, Ohio 900
Norwalk, Ohio 970 Partial Two hour charge.
Ashland, Ohio 1001 Left Toledo-Cleveland Route, lost without map.
Wooster, Ohio 1024
16 16-Nov-1908 10:00 a.m. Wooster, Ohio 1024
Mount Hope, Ohio 1045 Visited relatives in hometown.
Massillon, Ohio 1069 Full Charged at Massillon Power Plant.
17 17-Nov-1908 Massillon, Ohio 1069
Canton, Ohio 1082
Lisbon, Ohio 1119 Partial Only partial charge available. Dark when left.
East Palestine, Ohio 1133 Partial Partial charge from a small exciter dynamo.
18 18-Nov-1908 East Palestine, Ohio 1133
Sewickley, Pennsylvania 1166 Bought Weed non-skid tire chains for mud.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180 Full Odometer read 1,332-mile (2,144 km) from Lincoln.
19-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180
20-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180
19 21-Nov-1908 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1180
Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania 1189
Export, Pennsylvania 1204 Partial Received free charge for fixing a nickelodeon power plant.
4:00 p.m. Blairsville, Pennsylvania 1225 Full
20 22-Nov-1908 Blairsville, Pennsylvania 1225
2:00 p.m. Johnstown, Pennsylvania 1251 Full Charged at Johnstown Automobile Co.
21 23-Nov-1908 Johnstown, Pennsylvania 1251
Spring Meadow, Pennsylvania 1278 92.7 miles (149.2 km) from Pittsburgh, Glidden Guide gave wrong turn: 4 extra miles.
Fishertown, Pennsylvania 1280
Bedford, Pennsylvania 1290 Partial Partial charge at electric plant due to upcoming hills.
Bedford Springs, Pennsylvania 1292
Everett, Pennsylvania 1301 Full
22 24-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Everett, Pennsylvania 1301
Breezewood, Pennsylvania 1309
McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania 1328
10:00 p.m. Mercersburg, Pennsylvania 1338
23 25-Nov-1908 12:00 noon Mercersburg, Pennsylvania 1338 Full
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 1354
3:00 p.m. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 1378 Full Visited Gettysburg battlefield.
24 26-Nov-1908 1:00 p.m. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 1378 Thanksgiving Day.
York, Pennsylvania 1407 Full Stopped by police for no state driver's license. Charged at Keystone Garage.
25 27-Nov-1908 York, Pennsylvania 1407
Columbia, Pennsylvania 1422 Joined White Route No. 7 with 16 tolls.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania 1434
Coatesville, Pennsylvania 1462
Malvern, Pennsylvania 1482
Overbrook, Pennsylvania 1498
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1507 Full Replaced camel hair brake linings worn out through Allegheny Mountains and charged at Quaker City Garage.
26 28-Nov-1908 9:00 a.m. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1507
Camden, New Jersey 1510 Joined White Route No. 5.
Burlington, New Jersey 1529
Newark, New Jersey 1593
Jersey City, New Jersey 1598 Crossed Hudson River on the Pennsylvania Railroad Ferry to 23rd Street.
6:00 p.m. New York City 1607 Ended at Hotel Knickerbocker in Times Square. 200 miles (320 km) from York on two charges, odometer read 1,800 miles (2,900 km) from Lincoln, 75 lb (34 kg) of mud stuck to car.
Table notes: Italics indicate interpolated values where entries were omitted in the condensed journal
Highlights[edit]
Fritchle drove the eighteen hundred miles between Lincoln and New York in twenty-nine days averaging close to ninety miles per battery charge across extremes in weather, terrain, and road conditions. The time included about twenty-one days of driving and eight for rest, sightseeing, and visits. Fritchle recorded it as a 29-day trip beginning on 31 October in his journal, but did not seem to object when the newspapers reported it a day shorter beginning on 1 November.
Fritchle Electric towing an Olds near York, Pennsylvania
Required repairs and maintenance were trivial. They included one flat tire on the road out of Chicago, a 150 A fuse that was blown throwing the car into gear from a dead stop on a steep mountain incline, and a new set of camel hair brake linings to replace the ones worn out in the Alleghenys. The brake repairs could have been avoided by installing asbestos linings prior to leaving Denver, but the decision was made to keep the vehicle completely stock.[18]
The Victoria Phaeton had to be towed once in Iowa by a gasoline-powered automobile when an inaccurate distance estimate led to the batteries being depleted two miles (3.2 km) short of the charging station. Fritchle was later able to even the record by towing a disabled Oldsmobile ten miles (16 km) to service near York, Pennsylvania.[5]
A wide variety of alternating and direct current power sources were used for recharging. These ranged from a dynamo borrowed from a physician's X-ray machine to a direct connection at a community power plant. Most of the garages he stopped at could safely recharge his vehicle, but in other situations he was often left to figure it out on his own. Fritchle acknowledged that touring in an electric car was only feasible for an "expert electrician" due to the complications of safely recharging from the variety of power sources and connections that existed at that time. He was not trying to portray electric vehicles as practical for cross-country travel, but rather demonstrate that his electric vehicles were as robust as the best of the fuel-powered automobiles.[5]
Fritchle drove the Victoria Phaeton from New York to Washington, D.C. with plans to continue to Chicago in order to attend an auto show. He and the automobile later returned to Denver by rail.
After The 100 Mile Fritchle Electric[edit]
As robust as the Fritchle electric vehicles were for their time, initial growth of the electric vehicle segment peaked in 1912[20] and became a declining niche unable to compete on price, range, or servicing with the substantially higher volume gasoline powered alternatives. A Fritchle hybrid gas-electric model utilizing a four-cylinder air-cooled engine was developed in 1916, but failed to sustain the automobile business.[4] Production ceased sometime after 1917, though the last Fritchle Electric may have been sold as late as 1922.
The automobile business was followed by the Fritchle Electric Company. This firm developed and sold wind power generation systems into the late 1920s that were based upon the windpumps common on farms and ranches throughout much of North America.[14] He later worked for the Buick Motor Company and remained active in the radio and electric power industries until his retirement in 1941.[21]
Patents and papers[edit]
Process of Producing Active Material and Electrodes for Storage Batteries and Products Thereof. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. 3 September 1903. US 738313.
Connector for Electrochemical Apparatus. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. 23 August 1904. US 768175.
Notes[edit]
^ a b Fritichle 1903
^ a b c d Stone 1918: 428
^ a b c Brady 1912: 98
^ a b Beecroft 1916: 156
^ a b c d e f NYT 1908-11-30: 7
^ Artman 1909: 140
^ a b Fritchle 1953: 30
^ van Sicklen 1918
^ Dunham 1917: 226
^ Hayward 1915: 75
^ Stone 1918: 30
^ Hayward 1915: 158
^ Beecroft 1913: 20
^ a b Stone 1918: 430
^ Beecroft 1912
^ Pender 1922: 54
^ White Pole Rd 2009
^ a b Fritchle 1953: 30-32, 52
^ Fritchle 1953: 53
^ DOE 2005
^ Sulzberger 2006
References[edit]
Artman (ed.), James (1 January 1909). "Trade News Items". Automobile Trade Journal. Philadelphia: Chilton Printing Co. 13 (7): 140–146. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Beecroft (ed.), David (1 August 1912). "Fritchle Plant for Bridgeport". The Automobile. New York: The Class Journal Co. 27 (5): 255. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Beecroft (ed.), David (2 January 1913). "Electric Vehicles for 1913". The Automobile. New York: The Class Journal Co. 28 (1): 10–23. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Beecroft (ed.), David (20 January 1916). "Fritchle Preparing Gas-Electric Model". The Automobile. 34. New York: The Class Journal Co. p. 156. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Brady (pres.), Anthony N. (June 1912). "The Fritchle Car". The Edison Monthly. New York: The New York Edison Co. 5 (1): 98–99.
Dunham (pres.), George W. (April 1917). "Applications Approved May 14, 1917". SAE Bulletin. New York: Society of Automotive Engineers. 11 (1): 226–230.
Fritchle, Oliver P. (3 September 1903). Process of Producing Active Material and Electrodes for Storage Batteries and Products Thereof. US 738313. Washington, D.C.: United States Patent Office. US 738313.
Fritchle, Oliver P. (December 1953) [1909]. "Electric Endurance: Condensed from an original catalog". Auto Age. 1. pp. 30–32, 52–53.
"From Nebraska in Electric Auto" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 November 1908. p. 7. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
Hayward, Charles B. (1915). "Electric Automobiles". Cyclopedia of Automobile Engineering. 3. Chicago: American Technical Society. pp. 1–161.
Pender (ed.), Harold; William A. Del Mar (1922). "Automobiles, Electric". Handbook for Electrical Engineers (2 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 54–67. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Stone, Wilbur F. (1918). "Oliver Parker Fritchle". History of Colorado. 2. Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co. pp. 428–430.
Sulzberger, Carl (November 2006). "One Hundred Miles on One Charge: The remarkable Fritchle electric car". Power Engineering Society: History. New York: IEEE. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
"The White Pole Road - History". White Pole Road Development Corporation. 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2009-02-10.
U.S. Department of Energy (7 November 2005). "History of Electric Vehicles". Vehicle Technologies Program. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
van Sicklen (mgr.), N. H. (16 February 1905). "The 1905 Hammer (advert)". Motor Age. Chicago: The Trade Press Co. 7 (7): 38.
External links[edit]
"Album with photo of Fritchle Wind-Electric Light windmill". T. Lindsay Baker.
"Map of Great Rock Island Route". Rumsey Map Collection. ... the roads west of Des Moines along the Rock Island (O. P. Fritchle)
"Approximate route of 1908 Glidden Tour mapped on current roads". Google Maps.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Parker_Fritchle&oldid=999672571"
Categories:
1874 births
1951 deaths
People from Holmes County, Ohio
American automotive pioneers
American automotive engineers
American electrical engineers
American chemists
Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni
People from Denver
Engineers from Ohio
Hidden categories:
Articles with hCards
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
CS1 maint: extra text: authors list
CS1: long volume value
AC with 0 elements
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Current events
Random article
About Wikipedia
Contact us
Donate
Contribute
Help
Learn to edit
Community portal
Recent changes
Upload file
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Cite this page
Wikidata item
Print/export
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 10:18 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.